Caste and Race in India c6: Chapter II. Nature of Caste-Groups

Caste and Race in India c6

Language: English

Chapter II. Nature of Caste-Groups

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WE have seen that in the Hindu caste-society there are a number of groups with distinct names. The nature of these names is likely to furnish us with a clue to some understanding of the process by which distinction between groups came to be formulated. Of the major groups called castes many bear names derived from the principal professions they followed or the crafts they practised and, in the majority of cases, are still engaged in. Brahmin means one who recites the prayer, the ritual formulæ or incantations, and designates a group that was once wholly composed of individuals so engaged, though now it is the appellation of a group whose members are engaged not only in the priestly function, but also in the allied functions of clerks and writers, and even in pursuits absolutely foreign to the original ideals of a Brahmin.

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Of the groups carrying on trade and commerce a large number bear the name of Vani or Baniya, which is derived from a Sanskrit word meaning a trader. The Tamil Chetti seems also to refer to the avocation of the group in that linguistic area. Jat of the Punjab means cultivator, so also do Vellala of the Tamil and Vakkaliga of the Canarese country. Kurmi, Kunbi, and Kanbi perhaps signify the occupation of the group, viz. that of cultivation, though it is not improbable that the name may be of tribal origin. Kisan, the name of a cultivating caste of northern India, must be derived from the Sanskrit word for cultivation. Sometimes the connection of agriculture is brought out indirectly as in the name of the Lodha of the Central Provinces. The name is believed to mean "clod-hopper" from "loh", a clod.¹ The cattle-breeding group takes the significant name of Gauli, derived from a Sanskrit word for cow. Soni or Sonar, the name of the goldsmith caste, refers to the material in which the group specializes. Barhai, Tarkhan, Tarkhan and Sutar, the designations of the carpenter-caste in the different linguistic regions, point to the material worked on, the mode of working or the special implement of the craft. The names of the metal-working castes—Lohar, Tambat, Kasar, and Thathera—come from the metal handled by these groups, viz. iron, copper, bell-metal, and brass. Bunkar, Joria, Tanti, Koshti, Patva, Pattanulkaran, and Sale are the designations of the various weaving castes. The first two are derived from a root meaning, to put the threads together,¹ and the others from Sanskrit words for silk-cloth.² Kumhar or Kumbhar, the name of the potter-caste, means one who makes pots. Tili or Teli, the oil-presser, means either one who presses oil or one who handles sesamum. The names of the barber-caste are either derived from the Sanskrit word for barber or signify those who cut the hair. Lunia and Agri mean salt-workers. Bari, the leaf-plate-making caste, derives its name from "bar", a "plantation", and Tamboli, dealers in betel-leaf, from the Sanskrit word for betel-leaf. Dharkar means rope-maker and Bansphor, the basket-maker, means the bamboo-splitter. Chamar or Chambhar, the name of the leather-working caste, is derived from a Sanskrit word meaning, worker in leather. Kahar, name of a North-Indian caste, formerly engaged chiefly as water-carriers but now as general and domestic servants, means a water-carrier. Pasi means a trapper or snarer, and is significantly the name of an aboriginal caste living by catching wild birds and small game. The names of the shepherd castes seem to be derived from words meaning sheep. Such is at least the case with Gadaria from "gadar", an old Hindi word for sheep.³

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¹ Russell, iv, p. 113.

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¹ Nesfield, p. 21.

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² Nesfield, p. 11.

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³ Russell, iii, p. 581, and iv, p. 386.

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Many others of these major groups called castes bear merely tribal or ethnic names. Such are for example: Arora, Gujar, Lohana, Bhatia, Mina, Bhil, Dom, Oraon, Munda, Santal, Koch, Ahir, Mahar, Nayar, Maratha, Gond, Khond, etc.

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Religious movements have not failed to give their names to groups, which are now castes. The Bishnois and Sadhs, the Jogis, the Gosains, and the Manbhaos are some of the examples of sectarian castes. The first four of these began as orders emphasizing certain aspects of Hindu tenets, while the last group was the result of a reformist movement in the Maratha region.

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A few of the groups have names emphasizing a peculiarity which is somehow regarded as specific, or are of the nature of nicknames. Musahar, meaning mouse-eaters, is the name of a low aboriginal caste of the United Provinces. Bhangi, one who performs the useful function of removing night-soil, is a term probably applied to the caste simply as a token of contempt—those who are broken or outcast.¹ Bhulia, an Uriya caste of weavers, are so called merely because they are supposed to be a forgetful people—from "bhulna", "to forget".² Dangi, the name of a cultivating caste of the Central Provinces, means merely a hillman, perhaps referring to the former marauding activities of the now peaceful and once dominant people.³ The Panka of the Central Provinces are a caste of weavers and general labourers; but their name is believed to be derived from a certain incident in their conversion to the creed of Kabir and means those who are "from water", "pani ka".⁴ Dubla, one of the aboriginal tribes of Gujarat, are so called because they are weaklings⁵: "dubla" means weak. Naikdas of Gujarat are perhaps so designated in contempt, the term meaning "little Naik". Ramoshi, a thieving caste of the Deccan, is supposed to be a short form of Rama-Vanshi, i.e. descendant of Rama, the epic hero.⁶ Kallan, the name of a Madras caste, means in Tamil a "thief". Tiyan, the toddy-tapping caste of Malabar, means a "southerner", as the Tiyans are believed to have migrated from Ceylon. Pariah, the name of the great untouchable caste of Madras, is derived from a word for drum, which instrument is played by them.

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¹ Enthoven, i, p. 105.

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² Russell, ii, pp. 457-8.

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³ Enthoven, i, p. 341.

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⁴ Russell, ii, p. 320.

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⁵ Russell, iv, p. 324.

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⁶ Enthoven, iii, p. 297.

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A small number of these major groups are definitely known to be the outcome of miscegenation. Some of the members of the higher castes of Orissa and the Kayasth immigrants into Orissa keep maids of Bhandari and other clean castes and treat them as their concubines. The issue of such unions is known by the name of Shagirdapesha.¹ The Bhilalas are well known to be the offspring of Rajput males and Bhil women.² Vidur, a Maratha caste of the Central Provinces, is wholly formed by individuals of mixed descent.³

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¹ Risley, (2), p. 83.

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² Russell, iv, p. 596.

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³ Ibid., p. 108.

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A close study of the names of the various minor units, the so-called sub-castes, within the major groups reveals the fact that the bases of distinction leading to the exclusive marking off of these groups were: First, territorial or jurisdictional separateness; second, mixed origin; third, occupational distinction; fourth, some peculiarity in the technique of one and the same occupation; fifth, sectarian difference; sixth, dissimilarity of customs; and last, adventitious circumstances, suggesting certain nicknames.

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Sub-castes that bear the name of some ancient city or locality, are to be met with in the majority of the castes. The Ahirs of the Central Provinces have among their sub-castes, the following groups: Jijhotia, taking their name from Jajhoti, the classical designation of Bundelkhand; Narwaria from Narwar; Kosaria from Kosala, the ancient name of Chhattisgarh; and Kanaujia from Kanauj.⁴ The Barai have the following endogamous sub-divisions: Chaurasia, from the Chaurasi pargana of Mirzapur District; Panagaria from Panagar in Jubbulpore; Mahobia from Mahoba; Jaiswar, from the town of Jais in Rai Bareli District; Gangapari, coming from the other side of the Ganges.⁵ The Brahmins of Bengal have among their sub-castes the following names: Paschatya, from the western part of India; Radhiya, from Radh, the old name of Western Bengal; Barendra, from the northern part of Bengal.⁶ The names of the sub-castes of the Brahmin caste of the United Provinces are most of them territorial in origin: Kanaujia from Kanauj; Maithil from Mithila; Jijhotia from Jajhoti; Saraswat, named after the River Saraswati; and Gaur from an old name of a large part of Northern India. Most of the sub-castes of the Brahmins of the Maratha country bear names of localities: Konkanasth from the Konkan; Deshasth from the Desh, the Deccan plateau. The Saraswat Brahmins have more than six sub-castes, all territorial in origin. Of the numerous sub-castes of the Gujarat Brahmins the majority bear territorial names, like Agarwal, from Agra, Deshaval, Harsola, Jharola, Modh, Nagar, Osval, Porval, Shrimali, Sorathia, all of them being derived from old names of localities once independent in their jurisdiction.¹ Many of the sub-divisions of the Smarta Brahmins of the Telugu country bear names derived from the old names of the various parts of that country: Velnad, Vengi Nadu, Kasal Nadu, Mulki Nadu, and Telaga Nadu. The sub-caste of the Kanara Kamma Vaidika is formed by Brahmins who originally came from the Kanarese country but are now naturalized in the Telugu country.² Following are some of the other castes among which the sub-castes bear territorial names: Vania, Mochi, Kansara, Sutar, Charan, Kumbhar, Dhed, Darji, Lohar, and Koli among Gujarat castes; Kayasth, Bania, and Vaidya, among the North Indian castes; Chambhar, Gaoli, Koli, Kumbhar, Kunbi, Lohar, Mahar, Mali, Nhavi, Sutar, and Vani among the Maratha castes.

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⁴ Enthoven, i, p. 158.

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⁵ Russell, ii, pp. 24-5.

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⁶ Bhattacharya, p. 85.

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¹ Enthoven, I, p. 221. Some of the Gujarat castes are further sub-divided according to the cities in which they reside, e.g., Shrimali Baniyas of Surat and those of Ahmedabad, etc.

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² Bhattacharya, p. 99.

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Many castes have divisions bearing names reminiscent of the ethnic origins of these sub-groups. Many tribes, either because some of their members followed a particular occupation or because some of them intermarried with the members of a particular caste-in-formation, have contributed their names to sub-castes. The professions and castes, which allowed or tolerated the infusion of tribal people, still distinguished the groups formed by such inclusion or mesalliance. This is how many of the occupational castes have come to possess sub-castes bearing tribal names. This process of infusion and left-handed marriage does not seem to have been restricted to tribes alone. In spite of the so-called rigidity of caste, it appears that many of the occupational and tribal castes, either permitted or connived at the intrusion of members of other castes. Only they tried to keep the progeny and the group formed by them distinct from their original group. Thus the sub-castes of some of the major castes have composite names derived from the names of other castes. The Barai, a caste of betel-vine growers in the Central Provinces, have a sub-division called the Kumbhardhang, who are supposed to be the descendants of a potter. The Basor, workers in bamboo, have the following sub-castes: Dumar or Dom-Basors, Basors who are derived from the Dom-tribe; Dhubela, perhaps from the Dhobi caste; Dharkar, which is the name also of a large caste of rope-makers in Northern India. The Chambhar, leather workers of the Maratha country, have Ahir as one of their sub-castes. The Chamar of the Central Provinces has a sub-caste named Korchamars who "are said to be the descendants of alliances between Chamars and Koris or weavers".¹ The Sali, a weaving caste of Maratha districts, has Ahir, Maratha, and Chambhar sub-castes, which announce their origins from the different ethnic and occupational groups. The Dhimar, a caste of fishermen and palanquin-bearers of the Central Provinces, retain in the name of one of their sub-castes its traditional origin from the Gonds. Among the Dheds, as among many castes of Gujarat, is a sub-caste named Gujar, derived from a mediaeval tribe of that name. Among the Gaulis, cowherds of the Maratha country, are to be found sub-castes bearing the name of Ahir, Kunbi, Kuruba, and Maratha. Gondhali, a composite caste of religious minstrels, has sub-castes bearing the names of other well-known castes of the Maratha country, like the Brahman, Dhangar, and Kumbhar. The Kolis of the Deccan have Agri, Ahir, and Bhil among their sub-castes. Nesfield has found among some castes of the United Provinces sub-castes styled after the Kol tribe, which seem to have taken to various occupations during the formative period of the caste-system.² Among the Kunbis of Nagpur is a sub-caste bearing the name Manwa derived from the Manas, who were once a dominant people in Chanda district. The Khandesh Kunbis have, as one of their sub-castes, Kumbhar, which is the name of the potter-caste. "Bodies of the Kori and Katia weaving castes of Northern India have been amalgamated with the Mahars in Districts where they have come together along the Satpura Hills and Nerbudda Valley," the latter caste still having Katia as one of its sub-castes.³ Kunbi is one of the sub-castes of the Nhavis, the Maratha caste of barbers. The Pardhans of the Central Provinces have a sub-caste called Ganda, supposed to be the offspring of intermarriages between the two castes.¹ Among the Shimpis or Maratha tailors, one finds Ahir and Maratha as two of their sub-castes, derived from well-known castes. "The Teli-Kalars appear to be a mixed group of Kalars who have taken to the oilman's profession, and the Teli-Banias are Telis who have become shopkeepers.²"

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¹ Nesfield, p. 106.

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² Nesfield, p. 106.

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³ Russell, iv, p. 138.

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¹ Russell, iv, p. 354.

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² Ibid., p. 540.

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The nature of many of the occupations is such that though from a broad point of view each one may be regarded as distinct, yet on closer scrutiny it presents differences which are sufficient to distinguish one aspect of it from another. Thus though leather-working may be regarded as one occupation by the society, the followers of that occupation may distinguish different branches of leather-working as shoe-making, sandal-making, or oilcan-making. Such detailed distinctions within an occupation have been thought to be adequate to designate the group of members following the particular branch of the occupation by the name of that branch. Sub-castes within many of the occupational castes bear names derived from the special branches of the occupations. Among the Chamars of the Central Provinces there are many sub-castes whose names are derived from the particular articles of leather that their members are engaged in making. The members of the sub-caste Budalgir prepare "budlas" or oilcans of leather. Jingars are saddle-makers. The Katwa sub-caste specializes in leather-cutting. The Dhimar caste of the Central Provinces has Bansia and Bandhaiya as two of their sub-castes. The former term is derived from "bansi", a bamboo fishing-rod, and the latter means those who make ropes and sacking of hemp and fibre. The Kunbis have a sub-caste called Tilole presumably because once they cultivated the sesamum (til) plant. Among the Lonaris of Belgaum there are two sub-divisions styled after their particular article which they prepare as Mith (salt) and Chune (lime). Phul Mali, Kacha Mali, Jire Mali, and Halde Mali, together forming the bulk of the Mali-caste, are sub-castes which take their names from occupational specialization. Thus the Phul Mali is a florist, the Kacha Mali prepare the cotton braid, the Jire grow cumin seed (jire), and the Halde grow "halad" or turmeric. The Koshtis of the Central Provinces have Patwi and Sutsale as two of their sub-castes. Patwis make the braid of silk-thread and sew silk-thread on ornaments. Sutsales weave mostly cotton-thread.

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Many sub-castes, especially among the castes that are either of the nature of ethnic groups or carry on secondary undefined occupations, are named from the nature of their special economic activities. Singaria, Tankiwala, Dhuria, Sonjhara, and Kasdhonia are some of the sub-divisions of the Dhimar caste in the Central Provinces. Singarias cultivate "singara" or water-nut. Tankiwalas are sharpeners of grindstones. Dhurias sell parched rice. Sonjhara wash for gold, and Kasdhonias wash the sands of sacred rivers to pick coins dropped in them by devout pilgrims. The Garpagari Jogi derives the name of his sub-caste from his occupation of using magic to avert hailstorms. The Manihari Jogis are pedlars selling beads, and the Ritha Biknath are so-called because they sell "ritha" or soap-nut. Khaire, Dhanoje, and Lonhare are three of the sub-castes of the Kunbis of the Central Provinces. Khaires presumably used to make catechu from "khair"; Dhanoje are those who tend small stock or "dhan", and Lonhare formerly refined salt. The Lonaria sub-caste of the Mahars of the Central Provinces is engaged in salt-making. The Dhangars have Mendhes and Mhaskes as two of their sub-divisions, named because they keep sheep (mendhis) and buffaloes (mhashi) respectively.

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The Mang-garudis, a sub-division of the Mang-caste, are so called because they are snake-charmers; the Tokarphodes take their name from their occupation of splitting (phod) bamboo (tokar); the Nades are so called because they make "nadas" or ropes. The Mangmochis are leather-workers. Kakars make ropes of untanned hide.¹ Nhavis, the barbers of the Maratha country, have among their sub-castes Vajantri and Mashalji. The former are so called because they play music and the latter because they carry torches (mashal) before processions. Among Mahars of the Maratha country two of their sub-divisions are named Panya and Bele, the former from their working with leaves for making umbrellas and the latter from their making mats from chips of bamboo. In the Central Provinces the Yerande Telis, who are a sub-caste of the Teli caste, take their name from the fact that formerly they pressed only "erandi" or castor oil seed. The Sao Telis have given up oil-pressing and are now cultivators.¹

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¹ Enthoven, ii, p. 436.

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¹ Russell, iv, p. 540.

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Peculiarities connected with the apparatus or technique of an occupation have given their names to the sub-divisions of some of the occupational castes. The Kumbhar, potters of the Maratha country, distinguish those who make pots by hand without the wheel as Hatghades (hand-potters), those who use a big wheel as Thorchake ("thor," big, and "chak", wheel), and those who use a small wheel as Lahanchake ("lahan," small). In the Central Provinces the potter-caste has the first sub-caste, but not the last two. Instead they have Chakere and Kurere, the latter using a revolving stone slab instead of a wheel. In addition they have a sub-caste called Goria because the members of their sub-division make white pots only and not black ones. In the Nagpur district the Telis have two principal sub-divisions. Ekbaile are those who yoke only one bullock to their press while Dobaile yoke two bullocks.

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Differences of religious schools or sects have given names to sub-divisions among some castes. The old distinctions on the basis of the Veda, which was traditionally followed by the members of a group, have persisted among the Deshasth Brahmins of the Maratha country leading to endogamous restrictions. Among them the Rigvedis and Yajurvedis—the followers of the Rig-veda and of the Yajur-veda—are so far distinct as to be sub-castes. Later creeds and reformatory movements have also left their marks on caste organization. Among the Deshasth Brahmins there is also an endogamous group, whose members are supposed to be the descendants of Eknath, a reforming saint of Maharashtra.² The South Indian Brahmins carry their religious differences to such an extent that generally the Smartas and Vaishnavas are regarded as sub-castes. The Chamars of the Central Provinces have amongst them a large sub-caste named Satnami because the members are followers of the Satnami sect. The Padam Salis have Hindu and Lingayat divisions which are endogamous. So also have the Gavlis, the Kumbhars and Malis, Lingayat divisions among them. The Pankas, a Dravidian caste of weavers, have Kabirha and Saktaha as their principal sub-castes. The Kabirhas are the followers of the sect of Kabir and the Saktahas profess to belong to the Sākta creed.¹

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² Enthoven. iii, 327. N.B.—It is a curious fact that among the Gujarat Baniyas their religious differences have not led to rigorous interdicting of intermarriage. There is no serious objection to marriages between Jain and Vaishnav Baniyas. Compare Malcolm, ii, p. 102.

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¹ Russell, iv, p. 325.

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Differences in customs and diet have been regarded as so important that some of the castes recognize groups with such differences as sub-castes, though the names of these do not necessarily take after the differences. The Berads of Bombay have two sub-castes, the difference between them being that the members of one eat the flesh of buffaloes, bullocks or pigs, and allow their women to follow prostitution, while the members of the other do not tolerate these practices. These latter are termed Bile, i.e. white or pure, and the former Kare or black. Dhor, one of the five sub-divisions of the Katkaris, is so called because the members eat beef. Moger, a Canarese fishing-caste, has three sub-divisions named according to their rules of inheritance: Aliyasantanas, Makalasantanas, and Randesantanas, i.e. those who inherit through females, those who inherit through males, and those who are the progeny of re-married widows.² The Kunbis of the Central Provinces have a sub-caste called Gadhao because they formerly kept donkeys (gadhav).

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² Enthoven, iii, p. 60.

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Many castes have sub-castes, whose names are derived from some real peculiarity now forgotten, or some adventitious circumstance to which importance is attached, and which is used to distinguish the members of the group, or, in the case of miscegenation, from the fact of mere illegitimacy of unions, the exact lineage not being attended to. The Basors of the Central Provinces have a section called Purania or Juthia because they are supposed to be the illegitimate progeny of Ahir wet-nurses (dai), employed in Rajput households. The Chungia Chamars are a branch of the Satnami Chamars and are so called because, contrary to the rules of the sect, they smoke, evidently by means of a leaf-pipe (chungia). The Daijanya sub-caste of the Chamars is so called because their women act as midwives, though this business is practised by women of other sub-castes as well. The Dhimars have a sub-caste which is merely named Nadha or those who live on the banks of streams. Their Suvarha and Gadhewale sub-castes derive their names from their special association with two unclean animals, pig and ass. The Mahars disclose a sense of humour by designating the group of descendants of illicit unions by the term Dharmik (pious). The Pardhans, on the contrary, apply a prosaic term to such a group among them. It is known as "Thothia" or "maimed". Though "langoti" or a narrow piece of cloth is the loincloth of many poor castes, the Pardhis have hit upon its use as the distinctive mark of their members and call one of their sub-castes Langoti. The Kumbhars have Gadhere, Bardia, and Sungaria as three of their sub-castes, these groups deriving their names from the animal they use or keep: ass, bullock, and pig respectively. The Dhangars of Bombay call their bastard brethren "kadu", while the Gujarat Kumbhars use the term Vatalia, i.e. polluted, to designate such members.

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*Note.*—The above facts are mostly taken from the Central Provinces and Bombay Presidency, both of which regions are outside the centre of old Brahmanic culture. It would have been very instructive to know how matters stand in the Tamil region which is the farthest removed from the home of the original culture and which must have received its Sanskritic culture at the hands of small batches of immigrants. But unfortunately the ethnographic literature on Dravidian India does not enable us to have a glimpse of this aspect of caste. In the home of the Brahmanic culture, the United Provinces, the same principles can be discerned from the nomenclature of the castes and sub-castes. One additional and important feature of the caste origination of that province is that the names of Rajput clans and those of some of the eponymous personages figure very largely in the names of the sub-castes of many major groups. (See W. Crooke, *The Tribes and Castes of the North-Western Provinces and Oudh*, vol. i, pp. cixiv-v.)

Linked texts (3)

Kabīr — Kabīr, Hindi
Ṛgvedasaṃhitā — Sanskrit
Śākta — Sanskrit