Pramāṇa · Search · About · API

Life in Ancient India as Depicted in the Jain Canons, with Commentaries: An Administrative, Economic, Social and Geographical Survey c12.s10: Marriage

Life in Ancient India as Depicted in the Jain Canons, with Commentaries: An Administrative, Economic, Social and Geographical Survey c12.s10

Language
English

Contents

Marriage

c12.s10.1

Marriage, according to the Hindus, is not merely a contract between two parties but a spiritual union, a holy bond of unity brought about by divine dispensation. One of the purposes underlying such marriage is to keep the continuity of the line for which man must take the best bride available and the maiden should be married to the best groom available. There should be complete harmony between husband and wife.

Marriageable Age

c12.s10.t1.1

Jain texts do not tell us definitely about the age of marriage. We are simply told that both a girl and a boy should be of an equal age (samānavaya). It seems that in ancient India late marriages were considered harmful. A popular saying is quoted that, if after the attainment of puberty of a maiden, her guardians fail to arrange for her marriage, they go to hell.¹⁹

c12.s10.t1.2

¹⁹ Pinda. Nir 500 ; cf for a similar view, Manu (IX, 88).

Forms of Marriage

c12.s10.t2.1

The forms of marriage mentioned in the Jain texts may be classified into three types²⁰: marriages arranged by parents of both parties, Svayamvara, and Gāndharva marriage. The current form of marriage was that arranged by parents of both parties. Generally, marriage within one's own caste (jāti) was the rule. As in the Jātakas, we meet here with the effort to keep the family pure through the marriage connections among the people of same standing and profession and not to allow it to degenerate through intermixture with lower elements²¹. Ordinarily, we find that the parents brought a wife for their son from a family of the same rank (sarisayakula). We are told that prince Meghakumāra was married to eight princesses of equal age, beauty and virtue, belonging to the same royal rank.²² However, exceptions regarding caste and rank are not unknown in the Jain texts. For instance, we hear of the minister Teyaliputta who married a goldsmith's daughter,²³ Gayasukumāla, a ksatriya, was betrothed to a Brāhmaṇa girl;²⁴ king Jiyasattu married a painter’s daughter; ²⁵ Bhambhadatta married the girls from the Brāhmaṇa and the merchant families.²⁶

c12.s10.t2.2

²⁰ In the Hindu literature eight forms of marriage are enumerated (Manu. 3.21); Mahābhārata (I. 64 Sf), see also Altekar, op. cit., pp. 41-56.

c12.s10.t2.3

²¹ Cf. Fick, op. cit., p. 51 f.

c12.s10.t2.4

²² Nāyā. 1, p. 23.

c12.s10.t2.5

²³ Nāyā. 14, p. 148.

c12.s10.t2.6

²⁴ Anta. 3, p. 16.

c12.s10.t2.7

²⁵ Uttarā Ṭī., 9. p. 141 a ff.

c12.s10.t2.8

²⁶ ibid., pp. 188 a, 192 a. In the days of Manu the system of intermarriages was much more flexible than it is today. The anuloma marriages were not uncommon in society down to the eighth century A. D. Altekar, op. cit., p. 88.

c12.s10.t2.9

In matters regarding marriage very often the elders consulted each other and informed of their grown-up children. Sometimes the consent of the boy was understood by his silence. We hear of Jinadatta, a merchant of Campā, who happened to see the daughter of Sāgaradatta playing with a golden ball (*kaṇagatindūsaya*). The former approached the latter and proposed to marry his son to the latter’s daughter. Later on Jinadatta went home and consulted his son who gave his consent by keeping quiet.²⁷

c12.s10.t2.10

²⁷ Nāyā. 16, p. 168 f. Also Anta. 3, p. 16.

Marriage by Purchase

c12.s10.t3.1

In this form of marriage a wife was obtained for money paid to her father’s family by the husband or his father. The minister Teyaliputta, referred to above, wanted to marry the daughter of a goldsmith, and so he asked him as to what money (*sunka*) he should pay him. The latter replied that it was sufficient that a minister was marrying his daughter and hence he need not worry about payment. We hear of a merchant, who, after leaving his negligent wife, married another girl by paying a large sum.²⁸ A robber who had plenty of money paid the desired amount (*jahacchiyam sunkam*) and married a girl.²⁹ Then we hear of king Candacchāya, who, while estimating the value of Malli, remarked that she was worth his whole kingdom.³⁰ These instances sufficiently testify to the prevalence of the practice of giving daughter in marriage in exchange of money.³¹

c12.s10.t3.2

²⁸ Uttarā Ṭī. 4, p. 97.

c12.s10.t3.3

²⁹ Uttarā. cū. p. 110.

c12.s10.t3.4

³⁰ Nāyā. 8, p. 103.

c12.s10.t3.5

³¹ For condemnation of such marriage, see Manu. III.51; also Altekar, op. cit., pp. 47-50

c12.s10.t3.6

It is said that the following marriage gifts (*pridāna*) were given to Meghakumāra by his parents : eight crores of silver, the same of gold, eight crowns, eight pairs of earrings, eight strings of pearls (*hāra*), half strings of pearls, (*addhahāra*), the same of one stringed necklaces of gems, (*ekkāvalī*), the same of pearls, gold, necklaces (*kaṇakāvalī*), jewel necklaces (*rayaṇāvalī*), bracelets, armlets (*tuḍaya*), eight suits of fine linen (*khoma*), tussar silk (*vaḍa*), silk (*paṭṭa*) dukūla silk (*dugulla*), eight figures of the goddesses such as *srī*, *hrī*, *dhṛti*, *kīrti*, *buddhi* and *lakṣmī*, eight round iron seats (*nandam*), stools (*bhaddā*) locks (*tāla* ?) flags, eight herds of cows (*vaya*), eight dramas with thirtytwo actors in each, eight jewelled horses, elephants, carts, (*yāna*), carriages (*jugga*) coaches (*sibikā*), litters (*saṃdamānī*), elephant litters (gilli), horse-palanquin (thilli), open carts (viyaḍayāna), chariots, eight villages, eight male slaves (dāsa), female slaves (dāsi), attendants (kinkara), chamberlains (kañcuki), courtiers (mahattara), eunuchs (varisadhara), eight lamps, platters (thāla), chargers (pāī), mirror plates (thāsaga), cups (mallaga), spoons (kaiviya), aveya pot (com tāpikā-hastaka ?), frying pans (avapakka), stools (pīḍha), seats (bhisiya), bowls (karodiyā), couches (pallankaya), sofas (padisijjā) each of gold, silver and gold-silver, the same number of swan chairs (āsana), heron chairs, eagle chairs, tall chairs (onaya), sloping chairs (panaya), long chairs, fine chairs (bhadda) winged chairs (pakkha), crocodile chairs, lotus chairs and disā-sovatthiya chairs, eight casks of oil (tellasamugga), the same of the substances such as kuttha, patta, coya, tagara, haritāla, hingula, manosilā and mustard (sarisava) ; eight hunch-backed women (kirāta) etc. as mentioned before There were eight maid-servants holding umbrellas, chowries, fans, bowls, five nurses, eight women to rub (maddiya), to knead, (ummaddiya), to bathe and to attire, eight women to pound sandal, to pound powders (cunnaya), eight women to make sport (kilākārī), to make laughter (davagārī), to wait by his couch (uvatthāniyā or ucchāviyā), eight to be of his theatre (nādailla), eight women as attendants (koḍumbinī), kitcheners (mahānasinī), stewards (bhaṇḍārī), carriers of babes (ajjhadhāriṇī?), flowers and drink, eight to perform the domestic sacrifice (balikārī), to make beds, to carry messages within and without, eight to make chaplets (mālākārī), and eight to be dispatched out (pesaṇakārī). Besides, the gifts included plenty of riches, gold, jewels, gems, pearls, shells, corals and rubies which were sufficient to last for generations³²

c12.s10.t3.7

³² Nāyā Ṭī 1, p 42a f, cf Bhag III, p 244 f Bechardas, Abhaya Com. 11. 11, Antagada, pp. 33-35. trans by Barnett.

Dowry System

c12.s10.t4.1

We have instances which show the existence of the dowry system in the form of money, goods or estate which a woman brought to her husband in marriage. We are told of the wives of Mahāsayaga of Rāyagiha, who possessed ancestral property³³ Then we hear of a king of Vāṇārasī who gave away one thousand villages, one hundred elephants, plenty of treasure (bhaṇḍāra), one lac of foot-soldiers and ten thousand horses to his son-in-law in marriage.³⁴

c12.s10.t4.2

³³ Uvā 8, p 61 Also cf Altekar, op cit pp. 82-4

c12.s10.t4.3

³⁴ Uttarā Ṭī 4, p. 88; also cf Rāmāyaṇa 1. 74.4 ff The Jātaka mentions the custom of celebrating the marriage with bath money given by the father to his daughter, specially in royal weddings (Mehta, P B I p 281).

Ceremonies

c12.s10.t5.1

The usual practice in the first type of marriage was that the bridegroom went to the bride's house for marriage, though there are instances when the bride went to the house of the bridegroom³⁵ Lucky days were fixed for the ceremony and the bridegroom and his party were received with great honour and were entertained with food, drink, etc. We read that Sagara took his bath, held the domestic sacrifice (balıkamma) performed the lustratory rites of charm and auspicious marks (kayakouyapāyacclutta), decked his body with ornaments and in the company of his relatives proceeded to the house of Sāgaradatta to marry Sukumāliyā. Sagara and Sukumāliyā both were made to sit on the same slab (paṭṭa), they were given a bath with white and yellow pitchers, oblation was offered to fire and amidst auspicious songs and kisses (uvayaṇa) from the married women the marriage ceremony was performed.³⁶

c12.s10.t5.2

³⁵ Cf. Nāyā. 14, p. 148 f.

c12.s10.t5.3

³⁶ ibid., 16, p. 169.

Svayamvara

c12.s10.t6.1

Then we come to the Svayamvara marriage. We have several instances where girls attaining proper age chose publicly husbands for themselves from a number of suitors. The Nāyādhammakahā refers to the Svayamvara of Dovai which was attended by various prominent kings and princes. The guests were received with great pomp and show and were entertained with food, drink, wine, flowers, garments and music. Then by the beat of drum the Svayamvara of Dovai was proclaimed and the guests arrived in the Svayamvara hall especially built for the purpose on the bank of the Ganges. It was cleaned, sprinkled over, filled with bunches of fresh sweet-smelling blossoms of five colours, it smelt pleasantly with the shimmering fumes of kālāguru, fine kundurukka and turukka and was fragrant with sweet-smelling fine scents (sugandhavaragandhiam), a very incense stick (gandhavattibhhūyam) and the galleries were arranged (mañcāmañcakaḷiya). The visitors took their respective seats which were already marked with their names and waited for Dovai to come. In the meantime, Dovai took her bath, performed the lustatory rites etc., put on festive clean garments of state, visited the Jain temple (jiṇaghara) and coming back decked her body with various ornaments and accompanied by her female servants (ceḍiyā), play-nurse (kīḍāviyā) and the private secretary (bhiya) reached the Svayamvara hall in a chariot She bowed low to the kings and the princes, took a beautiful garland (sundāmaganda) made of fragrant flowers and emitting excellent smell in her hand and in the company of the play-nurse with a bright mirror in her hand, moved about the hall. The play-nurse, pointing out with her right hand, described the family, strength, gotra, power, beauty, learning, grandeur, youth and character of the various kings and princes, whose reflections were cast into the mirror. Then Dovai came to the place where the five Pāṇḍavas were seated, she put the garland around their necks and chose them as her husbands.³⁷

c12.s10.t6.2

³⁷ ibid., 16, pp. 179-82.

c12.s10.t6.3

The Uttarādhyayana commentary refers to another Svayamvara marriage of the princess Nivvui. With the permission of her father she went to Indapura and declared that one who was brave and valiant and one who could shoot an effigy, would be her husband. Various princes and kings were invited to attend the *Svayaṃvara*. The flags were raised up in the city and a *Svayaṃvara* hall was erected outside the town. There on an axle (*aksa*) to which were attached eight wheels (*cakra*) stood an effigy, which was to be shot in the eye. The twenty sons of king Indradatta tried their luck without success. In the end, another son of Indradatta stood up and succeeded in shooting at the eye of the effigy, and was chosen as husband by Nivvui.³⁸

c12.s10.t6.4

³⁸ 1, 3, p 65a

c12.s10.t6.5

We are told of a *Svayaṃvara* hall (*vāgharanasālā*), built in Tosali where a fire-vessel was kept always burning. In this hall slave boys and a slave girl were made to enter and the girl selected a boy as her husband.³⁹

c12.s10.t6.6

³⁹ *Brh. Bhā* 2 3446. This reminds us of primitive practices current in the primitive tribes in India

Gāndharva Marriage

c12.s10.t7.1

The third type of marriage is the *Gāndharva* marriage. In this marriage the bride and bridegroom made their own choice without the knowledge of their guardians and were married without rites or ceremonies. Thus Raktasubhadrā married Arjuna without the consent of her parents.⁴⁰ We hear of king Siharaha of Puṇḍavaddhana, who married a girl by *Gāndharva* marriage.⁴¹

c12.s10.t7.2

⁴⁰ *Panha Ti* 4, 16, p 85.

c12.s10.t7.3

⁴¹ *Uttarā Ti* 9, p 141, also 13, p. 190.

c12.s10.t7.4

There were also many instances of elopement and abduction. The story of the elopement of Vāsavadattā with Udayana is well-known; then Suvarṇāṅulikā, a maid servant of Udayana was abducted by king Pajjoya, Ruppiṇī by Kaṇha, Kamalāmelā by Sāgaracaṇḍa,⁴² and Cellaṇā was abducted by king Seṇiya. Regarding abduction, besides the well-known case of Sītā, the Jain texts refer to the abduction of Dovaī by king Paumaṇāha of Amārakankā⁴³

c12.s10.t7.5

⁴² *Brh. Bhā Pi*, p 57.

c12.s10.t7.6

⁴³ *Nāyā.* 16, p 186

c12.s10.t7.7

Mention may be made of bringing up women for immoral purposes (*asatipoṣaṇa*) which was in vogue in the country of Golla⁴⁴

c12.s10.t7.8

⁴⁴ *Ava. Ti.* (Hari), p. 829 a.

Other Kinds of Marriage

c12.s10.t8.1

Contrary to limitations on marriage imposed by Brāhmanic injunctions, we come across the examples of unorthodox marriages in Jain canonical literature. Such marriages, however, are not supported by other sources except the marriage with maternal uncle.

c12.s10.t8.2

Marriage with step-mother was prevalent in countries like Golla where the Brāhmaṇas (*vippa*) were allowed to marry their step-mother (*māisavittī*).⁴⁵

c12.s10.t8.3

⁴⁵ *Ava. cū.* II, p. 81; also cf. *Nisi cū.* II, p. 745; *Ava. Ti.* (Hari.) p. 580a; also see *Kathāsaritsāgara*, Vol. VII, p. 116 ff.

c12.s10.t8.4

According to Jain mythology, sister marriage was prevalent at the time of Usabha, who married his own sister. The Āvaśyaka cūrṇi refers to another case of sister marriage when king Pupphaketu allowed his son to marry his own sister.⁴⁶ This kind of marriage was also prevalent in the country of Golla.⁴⁷

c12.s10.t8.5

⁴⁶ II, p. 178.

c12.s10.t8.6

⁴⁷ ibid p 81 The com on the Suttanipāta (1, p. 357) refers to the Śakyans who were rebuked by the Koliyans for cohabiting like dogs, jackals and such like beasts with their own sisters, also Kunāla Jātaka (No. 536) V, p. 412 , also Digha I, p. 92 , also see I H Q., 1926, p 563 ff

c12.s10.t8.7

The marriage of cousins also was in vogue in the primitive society. The cousin marriage, with the daughter of maternal uncle (māuladuhiyā) was allowed in the countries of Lāṭa and Dakṣināpatha,⁴⁸ and was prohibited in Uttarāpatha.⁴⁹ We are told that Bambhadatta married his maternal uncle’s daughter.⁵⁰ The cousin marriage, i.e the marriage with sister’s daughter (māusaduhiyā) was also prevalent, but it was not allowed in Lāṭa.⁵¹ The other form of cousin marriage prevalent was marriage with the daughter of father’s sister.⁵²

c12.s10.t8.8

⁴⁸ Baudhāyana refers to this kind of marriage. Kumārila Bhaṭṭa casts a fling at the Dākṣinātya, who is overjoyed to get the daughter of his maternal uncle (Chakladar, op cit., p 133), also see Census India, 1931, Vol I, Pt. I, p 458

c12.s10.t8.9

⁴⁹ Āva cū II, p 81.

c12.s10.t8.10

⁵⁰ Uttarā. Ṭī., p 189a

c12.s10.t8.11

⁵¹ Āva. cū., op. cit.

c12.s10.t8.12

⁵² ibid., II, p. 160

Son-in-Law Living in the House

c12.s10.t9.1

There were other marriages in which the parents of the girl preferred keeping their son-in-law in their own house, instead of sending their daughter to her mother-in-law’s house. Thus the father of Sukumāliyā married his daughter to Sāgara on the condition that he was to stay in his house.⁵³ We are told that in Pārasa a horse-breeder employed a servant to look after his horses for which he gave him two horses a year as his wages. The master gave him an option to select two horses from his team. The servant, in consultation of the master’s daughter, with whom he was in love, selected two best horses whereupon the master was pleased to marry his daughter to him and keep him as a house son-in-law (ghara-jāmāuya).⁵⁴ This custom is still prevalent in Bengal and United Provinces in India and is known as “gharjamāi”. The son-in-law lived with his wife’s parents under the following circumstances : (i) when the girl’s father was well-to-do and had no son, (ii) when the girl’s family was very poor and wanted the help of a strong man, and (iii) when the son-in-law was a poor man and could not pay a dowry.⁵⁵

c12.s10.t9.2

⁵³ Nāyā., 16, P. 169

c12.s10.t9.3

⁵⁴ Bṛh. Bhā. 3.3959 f; however cf. Kundakakucchi Sindhava Jātaka (No. 254), II p. 287 f.

c12.s10.t9.4

⁵⁵ See Census India, 1931, Vol. I, Pt. I, pp. 250 f.

Marriage in Exchange

c12.s10.t10.1

Marriages were arranged in exchange for giving one's own sister in marriage. We read about the marriage of Devadatta, who married the sister of Dhanadatta and in exchange gave his sister in marriage to him⁵⁶ The custom of marriage in exchange is still prevalent among the *caturvedis* of Mathura and other parts of United Province. The reason behind the custom seems to have been the dearth of girls in particular caste the members of which were not allowed to marry outside. It is known as *sāṇṭā* or *adalābadalā*.⁵⁷

c12.s10.t10.2

⁵⁶ *Pinda. Nir* 324 f. According to the Buddhist tradition, king Bimbisāra and Pasenadi of Kosala were connected by marriage, each having married a sister of the other (*Dhammapada A I*, p. 385)

c12.s10.t10.3

⁵⁷ See *Census India*, 1931, Vol I Pt I, p. 252

Polygyny and Polyandry

c12.s10.t11.1

As has been said above, begetting children was the chief goal of Hindu marriage. The continuity of the line depends on the male issue; hence the birth of sons was considered necessary. A son was genuinely believed to be necessary for spiritual salvation. The Hindu law-givers allowed a man to marry more than once. This was the underlying idea of polygamous system among the Hindus, though in later times it degenerated to such an extent that polygamy became a fashion with the rich Indians.⁵⁸

c12.s10.t11.2

⁵⁸ See Valvalkar, *Hindu Social Institutions*, p. 193.

c12.s10.t11.3

As a general rule in ancient times people were monogamous, and polygyny was a fashion among the rich and ruling sections of the society. The kings and princes considered it a privilege to have a crowded harem, which strengthened their political power by contracting numerous but judicious matrimonial alliances. The rich people regarded plurality of wives as a proof of their wealth, reputation and social position. References to polygyny are numerous in the Jain texts. In this connection the names of king Bharata, king Vikkamajasa,⁵⁹ king Seṇiya⁶⁰ and that of Gāhāvai Mahāsaya may be mentioned.⁶¹

c12.s10.t11.4

⁵⁹ *Uttarā Ṭī*, 18, p. 239.

c12.s10.t11.5

⁶⁰ *Anta*, 7, p. 43

c12.s10.t11.6

⁶¹ See Supra p. 157

c12.s10.t11.7

Unlike polygyny, polyandry was a rare incident in life. Of polyandrous marriage, we come across a solitary example of Dovai, which, of course, is a remnant of Epic Age.⁶² Polyandry is still practised among all classes and castes in Jaunsar-Bawar (district Dehra Dun).⁶³

c12.s10.t11.8

⁶² See also Altekar, *op cit*, pp. 132-4.

c12.s10.t11.9

⁶³ *Census. India*, 1931, Vol. I, Pt. I, p. 252.

Remarriage of a Widower

c12.s10.t12.1

It may, however, happen that a woman may be forsaken, or allowed to go away by her husband or may go away of her own accord. Under such circumstances, the man was free to marry another woman. Thus we are told in the commentary on the *Uttarādhyayana* that a merchant's wife was fond of decorating her body so much that she did not look after the household servants and property and as a result all the servants left her. In course of time, when the merchant returned from his journey, not seeing any servant in the house, he got angry with his wife, turned her out of the house, and married another woman.⁶⁴

c12.s10.t12.2

⁶⁴ 4, p 97

Widow Remarriage

c12.s10.t13.1

According to the Hindu ideal of marriage, a true wife must preserve her chastity as much after as before her husband's death and hence the marriage of widows was generally not favoured in ancient India. Although according to the *Smṛtis*, there are "five cases of legal necessity" whereby the wife is allowed to marry a second husband, *viz*, if the first husband is lost, or dead, or becomes an ascetic or is impotent or is expelled from the caste;⁶⁵ yet it seems that on the whole the widow remarriage was looked with contempt.⁶⁶

c12.s10.t13.2

⁶⁵ *Nārada*, XII, 97.

c12.s10.t13.3

⁶⁶ See Valvalkar, *op. cit.*, chapter on Marriage; also Altekar, *op. cit.*, pp. 181-3

c12.s10.t13.4

The *Ovāiya* mentions the women whose husband is gone abroad, the women who have lost their husbands, the women who are widows from their childhood, the women who are forsaken, the women who are guarded by their mother, father, brother, family or father-in-law, the women whose nails have grown, the hairy women who have grown beard (*maṃsu*), the women who have given up the use of flowers, perfumes, garlands and ornaments, the women who suffer from perspiration, dirt and filth without a bath, the women who have given up the use of milk, curds, butter, *ghee*, oil, jaggery, salt, honey, wine and meat; it is said of such women that they observe celibacy and never marry another man⁶⁷

c12.s10.t13.5

⁶⁷ 38, p 167, *cf Manu* (IX 65)

c12.s10.t13.6

Reference is made to child-widows who joined the ascetic order. Dhanasiri⁶⁸ and Lakkhaṇāvatī⁶⁹ are mentioned as such widows who entered the life of nuns.

c12.s10.t13.7

⁶⁸ *Āva cū* p 526

c12.s10.t13.8

⁶⁹ *Mahā Ni* p 24.

The Custom of Niyoga

c12.s10.t14.1

Reference may be made here to the custom of *niyoga* which prevailed in ancient India. The practice prescribed for a childless widow to have intercourse with the brother or any near kinsman of her deceased husband to beget a male child.⁷⁰ In the *Āvaśyaka cūrṇi* reference is made to this custom, although it does not come exactly under the category of niyoga. It is said that once Kayapunna, a merchant of Rāyagiha, was sleeping in a temple, whence he was taken away by a merchant woman to her house This woman had lost her son in a shipwreck, and since there was no heir to his property, she feared that the heirless property might go to the king. The merchant woman told her four daughters-in-law that Kayapunna was their brother-in-law (devara) who was found after a very long time Kayapunna remained there for twelve years and in the course of time begot four children by each one of them⁷¹

c12.s10.t14.2

⁷⁰ According to *Manu* (IX 59f) the person who was appointed under *niyoga* to beget a son for the widow was to approach her anointed with clarified butter, silently to give her one son only, and by no means a second, and after the purpose of *niyoga* is served the man and the woman had to behave towards each other like a father and a daughter-in-law, also *Gautama* XVIII 4ff, Also see Altekar, *op. cit.*, pp 168-76.

c12.s10.t14.3

⁷¹ pp 466-9.

Self Immolation

c12.s10.t15.1

We do not find any instance of self immolation or the custom of Sati in Jain texts except one in the Mahanisīha when a widowed daughter of a certain king, in order to save her family from disrepute, wanted to perform Sati, but since this custom was not in vogue in her father's family, she refrained from it.⁷²

c12.s10.t15.2

⁷² p. 29 f. For the Sati custom, see Altekar, op. cit., Chapter IV.

Public Appearance of Women

c12.s10.t16.1

In early days as a whole there was nothing like modern purdah system in existence, though there were certain restrictions on the movement of women. Javanīyā or the curtain is mentioned in the Jain texts. It is stated that Tisala sat behind the curtain and listened to the interpretations of dreams.⁷³ But on the whole we find that women appeared in the public without any restriction. They could go out to visit their friends and relations. Many women are seen going to the jakkha and other shrines for worship and gathering on the occasion of various festivals. We hear that king Kūniya visited Mahāvīra along with his queens.73a In the case of prince-converts we find them being taken to Mahāvīra by the king and the queen who made a joint gift of their son to the Teacher.⁷⁴

c12.s10.t16.2

⁷³ Kalpa. 4. 63; also Nāyā. 1, p. 8.

c12.s10.t16.3

73a Ovā. Sū 33, p. 144f.

c12.s10.t16.4

⁷⁴ For Purdah system in ancient India, See Altekar, op. cit., pp. 196-211.

c12.s10.t16.5

We also come across women dressed in man's attire, putting on armour, equipped with weapons, arms, shields, bows and arrows.⁷⁵ There are examples when women actually fought battles. We hear of a certain queen who fought a battle in the disguise of her lord.⁷⁶

c12.s10.t16.6

⁷⁵ Vivā. 3, p. 23.

c12.s10.t16.7

⁷⁶ Vya. Bhā. 1, p. 100 a.

Linked texts (20)