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Life in Ancient India as Depicted in the Jain Canons, with Commentaries: An Administrative, Economic, Social and Geographical Survey c12.s2: Four Classes

Life in Ancient India as Depicted in the Jain Canons, with Commentaries: An Administrative, Economic, Social and Geographical Survey c12.s2

Language
English

Contents

Four Classes

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Jainism and Buddhism opposed the caste system asserting the social superiority of the Kṣatriyas over the Brāhmaṇas. Yet it is a mistake to suppose that caste-distinctions were abolished during the period of Mahāvīra and Buddha The four classes such as Bambhana, Khattiya, Vaissa and Sudda are mentioned in the Jain Suttas ⁶ According to the Jain tradition during the time of Usabha those who were state-officers were styled as Khattiyas and those who were landlords and bankers as Gāhāvais Then came into being the Vāniyagas and the Vaissas. Later on during the reign of Bharata came into existence the Bambhanas or Māhanas⁷ and then the Suddas Besides these primary vannas there were mixed castes formed from the union of different castes.⁸

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⁶ Cf Uttarā 25 31 , Vivā 5, p 33 , Ācā Niy 19 27

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⁷ The Jain texts give a curious explanation of the term Māhana It is said that once Bharata invited the Jain monks to partake various kinds of eatables and their being refused, distributed them among the sātagas These sātagas were of simple nature and religious-minded, and whenever they saw anybody killing, they stopped him by saying “do not kill” (mā hana) and hence they came to be known as Māhanas (Ārā cū p 5 also cf ibid, p 213 f, Vasu p 184)

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⁸ In the line of Manu the following mixed castes are mentioned in the Jain texts Ambattha, Ugga Nisāda, Augava, Māgadha, Sūta, Khattā, Vaideha and Caṇḍāla Then through further combination between mixed castes we have Sovāga, Venava, Bokkasa and Kukkuraa (Ācā Niy 21-27, cf Manu. X 6-56, also Gautama, IV 16 ff)

The Brāhmaṇas

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In Jain texts the Brāhmaṇas are held in contempt and are represented as the opponents of the Jain religion Frequently the term dhujāi (dhik jāti) “condemned caste” is used for them contemptuously In Jain Suttas as stated above, generally the primary position in society is assigned to the Khattiyas instead of the Bambhanas We have seen that no Tīrthaṅkara was born in a family other than the Kṣatriyas It is laid down that no great men are ever born in low, miserly, beggarly or in Brahmanical families A legend tells us that before his birth Mahāvīra was removed from the womb of Brāhmaṇī Devānandā to that of Kṣatriyānī Triśalā.⁹

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⁹ Kalpa 2 22 Cf a similar view expressed in the Nidānakathā (I, p 49) that the Buddhas are born in one or other of the two highest classes the Khattiya or the Brāhmaṇa castes and never in the low caste The Buddhist writers in enumeration of four castes invariably mention the Kṣatriyas before the Brāhmaṇas Cf also Vājasaneya saṃhitā (XXXVIII 19) and Kathaka (28 5) where Kṣatriyas are stated superior to the Brāhmaṇas (Majumdar, op cit, pp 367 369, Fick op cit, p 84 ff) For a controversy regarding the superiority of castes between Vasistha, a Brāhmaṇa and Viśvāmitra a Kṣatriya, see Dr. G. S, Ghurye, Caste and Race in India, p 63 f.

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But it should be noted that though the Jain stories seem to make the position of the Bambhanas inferior to that of the Khattiyas, the Brāhmaṇas enjoyed a high position in the society. It is stated in the Nisītha cūrṇi that the Brāhmaṇas were gods in heaven, the Prajāpati created them on earth as divine beings and so offering alms to them results in gain of spiritual merit¹⁰ Then the terms Samaṇa and Māhana frequently occur together in the Jain texts which shows that the homeless ascetics and the Brāhmaṇas were identical.¹¹ The pre-eminent position of the Brāhmaṇas is also evidenced by the fact that Mahāvīra was styled as Māhaṇa¹² or Mahāmāhaṇa.¹³

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¹⁰ 12, p. 865,

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¹¹ Cf. Ica cū. p. 93, cf. Samyutta, Samaṇa Brāhmaṇa Sutta (II p. 129 f, 236 f, IV, p. 231 f, V, p. 1).

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¹² Sūya 9.1.

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¹³ Uā 7.

Jain Conception of Brāhmaṇa

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Jain writers like those of the Buddhists lay stress on one's deeds rather than one's birth. It is said that one does not become a Sāmaṇa by the tonsure, nor a Brāhmaṇa by enchanting the sacred syllable ‘Om’, nor a Muni by living in woods, nor a Tāvasa by wearing clothes of kusa grass and bark, but one becomes a Sāmaṇa by equanimity of mind, a Brāhmaṇa by chastity, a Muni by knowledge and a Tāvasa by penance. In fact, a person's worth in life is determined by virtuous life and not by birth.¹⁴ The ridicule of caste system reaches its highest pitch when Hariesa, a soāga by birth, visited a sacrificial enclosure (jamacāḍa) of a Brāhmaṇa teacher and preached him that the real fire was penance, the real fire-place was life, the real ladle (suā) was right exertion, the real cow-dung was body, the real fire-wood was karman, the real oblation was self-control, right exertion and tranquility, the sacred pond was law and the real bathing-place was celibacy.¹⁵ But it is interesting to note that in spite of those caste-denouncing preachings and sermons the Jains could not do away with the time honoured restrictions of caste. They drew a line of distinction between high tribes (jāti-ārya) and low tribes (jāti-jungiya), high trade (kamma-ārya) and low trade (kamma-jungiya) and high crafts (sippa-ārya) and low crafts (sippa-jungiya)¹⁶ which we shall see shortly.

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¹⁴ Uttara 25.29 ff. Cf. a similar view of the Buddhist writers. Birth and caste cause conceit, virtue is the highest, Khattiya, Brāhmaṇa, Vessa, Sudda, Caṇḍāla and Pukkasa all become equal in the world of God if they have acted virtuously here, Sutta Nipāta I, 7, III, 9, Lick op. cit. p. 29. Majjhima op. cit. pp. 354-363.

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¹⁵ Uttara 12.4 ff.

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¹⁶ Cf. the Buddhists who stood as great champions for the purity of blood by keeping the family pure through marriage confined to the people of one's standing and profession and not to allow it to degenerate through mixture with lower elements (Fick op. cit., p. 52). Cf. also Ghuve op. cit. p. 66 also see Sammele Vinoda-ni (p. 410) where kamma and sippa are divided into high and low.

Their Privileges

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Whatever view the Jains may have had about the Brāhmaṇas, it is certain that generally they were held in respect and esteem by the people as pointed out already. We are told that king Bharata fed them daily and distinguished them from others by putting the mark of kākinī jewel on their person.¹⁷ The kings showed liberality towards them by offering gifts. We learn that the Nandas of Pāṭaliputta gave away wealth to the Brāhmaṇas¹⁸ Vararuci, a Brāhmaṇa, received one hundred and eight dīnāras every day for reciting the same number of verses in praise of the king¹⁹ Not only kings but other people also gave away charity and paid reverence to the Brāhmaṇas, whose services they required on various occasions On special occasions such as birth, death-ceremony etc. they were invited to meals.²⁰

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¹⁷ Ava. cū. p. 213 f.

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¹⁸ Uttarā Ṭī 3, p 57

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¹⁹ ibid 2, 27 a

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²⁰ Uttarā Ṭī 13, p 194 a

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Besides, the Brāhmaṇas enjoyed certain other privileges, such as immunity from taxes and capital punishment We have seen as to how a Brāhmaṇa was received by a certain king on his discovery of a treasure-trove whereas a merchant was despised for the same and his property confiscated²¹

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²¹ See Supra p. 62

Study

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The Brāhmaṇas were versed in the fourteen subjects of study (caud-dasa vijjatṭhāna), and were generally employed by the king We are told that Kāsava was a state Brāhmaṇa of Kosambi and after his death his place was given to another Brāhmaṇa²² There were teachers moving in the company of their pupils²³

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²² Uttarā Ṭī. 8, p 123 a

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²³ Uttarā Sū 12 19

Sacrifice

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The practice of sacrifice was very common among the Brāhmaṇas During his tour Mahāvīra is stated to have spent the rainy season in a sacrificial house (aggihottavasahī) of a Brāhmaṇa of Campā²⁴

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²⁴ Ā.a cū. p 320

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Then we hear of Vijayaghosa who was engaged in performing Brāhmaṇical sacrifice The monk Jayaghosa approached him for alms and converted him to his faith,²⁵ after preaching the true sacrifice We have already referred to Ajja Sejjambhava who was engaged in his sacrificial duties when visited by the pupils of Pabhava Besides, the Brāhmaṇas were employed by the kings for the same purpose Reference has been made to the priest Mahesaradatta who was versed in the four Vedas and who used to perform sacrifice to avert evil against the king²⁶

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²⁵ Uttarā 25.

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²⁶ See Supra p 58.

Other Professions

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Another profession in which the Brāhmaṇas were interested was that of dream-reading (suvinapādhaga) and fortune-telling On the birth of a king's child it seems to have been a standing custom to have the future predicted by the Brāhmaṇas. Signs (lakkhana) in the body were interpreted by the Brāhmaṇas versed in the signs of predicting the future We are told that, when Mahāvīra was born, king Siddhārtha sent for the interpreter of dreams (suviṇalakkhaṇapādhaya), versed in the eight divisions of Mahānimitta and other sciences, who predicted the future of the child ²⁷ Then we hear of a fortune-teller who prophesied the fall of Indra’s thunderbolt on the head of the lord of Poyanapura.²⁸ People ascertained from the Brāhmaṇas whether a day was good for a journey, when the latter uttered benediction praying for safe journey.²⁹

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²⁷ Kalpa Sū 4 60 ff

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²⁸ Uttarā Ṭī 18 p 242

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²⁹ Nāya 8, p 98

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Magic and demon-worship was another profession practised by the Brāhmaṇas which we shall treat in a separate chapter Medical profession is mentioned as still another profession of the Brāhmaṇas

The Khattiyas

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As we have seen in contrast to the Brāhmaṇical works which state the Brāhmaṇa superiority, Jain writers like those of the Buddhists claim an undisputable supremacy for the Khattiyas The Kṣatriyas learnt seventy two arts and achieved efficiency in the art of fighting. They acquired the right to rule the country by the strength of their arm A number of Khattiya kings and princes are mentioned who achieved the ideal of Jina-hood.

The Gahāvais

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The Gahāvais³⁰ or the householders correspond to the traditional Vaisya order of the Hindus of ancient India They were rich, owned land and cattle and belonged to the mercantile class Jain texts mention a number of Gahāvais, who were adherents of Jain faith (samaṇo-vāsaga), and after taking to the homeless life attained salvation Reference has been made to the householder Ānanda, a rich land-owner of Vāṇiyagāma, who possessed a large number of cattle, ploughs and carts Pārāsara was another Gahāvai who was prosperous in agriculture (kisi) and hence he was known as Kisipārāsara, he had six hundred ploughs ³¹ Kuiyanna is described as another Gahāvai who is said to have possessed a number of herds of kine ³² Then Gosankhī, a kutumbī, is mentioned as the lord of the Abhuas, his son used to journey to Campā for trade with the carts loaded with ghee³³. Nanda is mentioned as another influential setthi of Rāyagiha.³⁴

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³⁰ The Gahāvais were also known by the terms Ibjha, Setthi and koḍumbiya, who were included in the retinue of the king, Oṇā Sū. 27, cf. Iich, op cit, p 250 ff.

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³¹ Uttarā Ṭī. 2, p. 45.

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³² Āa cū p 44.

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³³ ibid, p 297.

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³⁴ Nāya Iu, p. 141.

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