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Life in Ancient India as Depicted in the Jain Canons, with Commentaries: An Administrative, Economic, Social and Geographical Survey c14.s3: III Popular Deities

Life in Ancient India as Depicted in the Jain Canons, with Commentaries: An Administrative, Economic, Social and Geographical Survey c14.s3

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English

Contents

III Popular Deities

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III

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Religion in its essence is based more on intuition and emotion than a rational attitude of mind It is with the help of religion that man tried to explain natural forces and phenomena of the universe by imagining the existence of ever present agencies which, he thought, controlled the cosmic system Thus came into being the workshop of various gods and goddesses and ancestral spirits which were supposed to be the controllers of the universe

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The worship of various deities in India is quite ancient¹⁷² Jain texts mention the festivities (*maha*) in honour of (1) *Inda*, (2) *Khanda*, (3) *Rudda*, (4) *Mukunda*, (5) *Siva*, (6) *Vesamaṇa*, (7) *Nāga*, (8) *Jakkha*, (9) *Bhūyī*, (10) *Ayyā* and (11) *Koṭṭakiriya*¹⁷³ We shall deal with them one by one

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¹⁷² There were images of gods and goddesses in the days of Pāṇini which were used for the purpose of making a living (Gopinath Element of Hindu Iconography, Introduction)

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¹⁷³ *Naya* 8, p 100, *Bha* 3 1 *The Lalitavistara* (p 120) mentions the images of *Śiva*, *Shanda*, *Nārāyaṇa*, *Kubera* Candrā Surya, *Vaiśravaṇa*, *Śakra*, *Brahmā* and *Lokapāla*.

(1) Indamaha

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The Indra is a vedic god of great antiquity and is the chief of all other gods He is famous for intemperance and adultery.¹⁷⁴ In the Kalpasūtra Indra enjoys divine pleasures in the heaven in company of various gods, eight chief queens, three assemblies, seven armies, seven commanders-in-chief,¹⁷⁵ and the body-guards (āyarakkha) ¹⁷⁶ *Indramaha* was most prominent among all other *mahas* in ancient days ¹⁷⁷

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¹⁷⁴ See Hopkins, *Epic Mythology*, p 135, cf Brh Bhā (I 1856-1859) where Indra seduced the wife of sage Udanka, who cursed him and as a result of which Indra became the guilty of murder of a Brāhmaṇa (*bambhavajjhā*) Indra went to Kurukṣetra but the *bambhavajjhā* followed him there Later on, the gods came down from heaven divided the *bambhavajjhā* into four parts, namely menstruation of women, passing time in water, drinking wine of a Brāhmaṇa and seduction of the wife of a sage and took him to the heaven For the legend of Udanka see *Mahābhā Vana* 204 f

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¹⁷⁵ Harinegamesī was one of the commanders-in-chief (*pāyattāṇyāhuvai*) of the celestial infantry of Indra, who played an important part in the conception and birth legend of Mahāvīra (*Kalpa sū* 2 26) This deity is also mentioned in the *Antagaḍa* (3 p 12) and is connected with the procreation of children.

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¹⁷⁶ 1 13

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¹⁷⁷ According to a Jain legend, Bharata was the first founder of this festival It is said that Indra gave Bharata his finger decked with ornaments with which the latter celebrated the eight days festivals in honour of Indra (*Āva cū* p 213), cf also Hopkins op cit, p 125 *Indramaha* is also mentioned by Bhāsa (Pusalkar, *Bhasa, a study* ch XIX p 440 f), also the *Kathāsaritsāgara* (Vol VIII, pp 144-53), *Mahābhārata* (I, 64 33) also see Dr Vasudeva S Agrawala's article in the *K V Rangaswami Aiyangar commemoration Vol* p 480 f

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The *Nisītha cūrṇi*¹⁷⁸ refers to the four great festivals (*mahāmaha*), viz, *Indamaha*, *Khandamaha*, *Jakkhamaha* and *Bhūyamaha*, which were celebrated on the full-moon days (*puṇṇimā*) of *āsāḍha*¹⁷⁹, *āsoya*, *kattīya* and *cetta* months successively when people passed their time in eating, drinking, dancing, singing, and visiting friends

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¹⁷⁸ 19, p 1174.

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¹⁷⁹ In Lāḍa, however, *Indramaha* was celebrated on the full-moon day of *srāvaṇa* (*Nisītha cū* ibid) According to the *Rāmāyaṇa* (IV 16 36), it was celebrated on the full-moon day of *āśvin* in the country of Gauda This festival was celebrated when rains were over and the roads were fit for war on the new-moon's days (Hopkins, op cit p 1251)

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The festival of Indra was celebrated with great pomp The *Uttarādhyayana* commentary refers to the celebration of this festival by king Dummuha in Kampillapura. The banner of Indra (*Indakeu*)¹⁸⁰ was raised amidst loud and auspicious cries, which was flagged with white banners adorned with a number of little bells, covered with beautiful wreaths and garlands, decorated with a string of jewels and decked with pendent mass of various fruits Then the dancing girls performed their dance, poetic compositions were sung, people danced, wonderful feats were shown by jugglers, betals were served, water mixed with camphor and saffron was sprinkled, large gifts were given and drums were sounded, and thus the seven days were passed in great rejoicing and revelry Then approached the full-moon day when the king worshipped the banner of Indra with great pomp and ceremony with flowers, garments,¹⁸¹ etc the deities Nāga Bhūya, Jakkha, Inda, Khanda, Rudda, Sua and Vesamana every caturdasī, astamī, amāvasa and pūrṇimā as a result of which she gave birth to a son, who was called Devadinna (given by gods)²¹⁸ The Jakkhas are also said to have cured diseases The Pinda Niyutti refers to the shrine of Manibhadra Jakkha which lay outside the town of Samilla in a garden and was furnished with an assembly-hall (sabhā) We are told that once small-pox broke out in the town and people prayed to the Jakkha In course of time the trouble subsided and the citizens besmeared the hall with cow-dung every astamī and other days²¹⁹ The Jakkhas were also believed to detect the unchastity of women²²⁰ The Jakkhas Punnabhadda and Manibhadda seem to be more popular to them offerings of food (mayāmpinda) were made²²¹

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¹⁸⁰ *Indalaṭṭhi* is also mentioned in the *Nāyā* 1, p 25, *Bhag* 9 6, also *Mahābhā* VII 49 12, the image of Inda (*Indapaṭimā*) is mentioned with a thunderbolt in hand (*Dhammapada A*, I, p 280)

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¹⁸¹ 8, p 136.

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²¹⁸ Nāyā 2, p 49 f

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²¹⁹ 243 f

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²²⁰ Das cū p 90, cf Kathāsaritsāgara, I, p 162

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²²¹ Nisī cū 11, p 709

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So far the beneficial aspect of the Jakkhas²²² has been traced but they could also be evilly disposed They caused trouble to the people and often were satisfied after killing them We hear of Sūlapāṇi Jakkha who used to kill persons who stayed in his shrine It is said that his shrine was built on the bones of the dead bodies²²³ Surappiya was another Jakkha who was painted every year and after the painting was over, the person who painted him was killed by the deity²²⁴ A Jakkha is mentioned who was satisfied after feeding the Jain sādhus at night and thus violating their vows.²²⁵ Then obsession by spirits (Jakkhaggaha)²²⁶ played an important part in the life of the people We have already referred to the garland-maker Ajjunava, who obsessed by the Jakkha, killed six gangsters and his own wife with the iron mace which he held in his hand²²⁷ The Jain monks and the nuns too were obsessed by the Jakkhas and were treated by exorcism (Bhūyavijjā)²²⁸ Then the north and east quarters were believed to be the haunting places of the Jakkhas²²⁹ Nandapura was supposed to be the abode of the Jakkhas²³⁰ Then in Golla a sickly person was not exposed owing to the fear of a Jakkhinī²³¹ Another strange belief regarding the Jakkhas was that they enjoyed sexual intercourse with the girls The Uttarādhyayana cūrṇi refers to a certain Brāhmaṇa who got enamoured of his own daughter He sent a woman to her as go-between, who explained her that it was customary in their family to have a sexual union with the *Jakkhas*.²³² We have already referred to the *Ganditindu*²³³ *Jakkha*, who is said to have had sexual intercourse with the princess Bhaddā. Then there were low types of the *Jakkhas*. The *Ādambara Jakkha*, also known as *Hiraḍikka Jakkha*, and *Ghantika Jakkha*²³⁴ were believed to be the *Jakkhas* of the *Mātangas* and the *Dombas* respectively. The shrine of the former was built on the bones of human beings who had died recently.²³⁵ The *Ghantika Jakkha* was believed to whisper in the ear when questioned.²³⁶

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²²² For evil character of the Jakkhas in the Jātakas see Mehta's op cit p 324

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²²³ Āva cū pp 272-4

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²²⁴ Ibid p 87 f

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²²⁵ Brh Bhā 1.4943 f

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²²⁶ The Jambu (p 120) refers to Indaggaha Dharaggaha Khardaggaha Kumāragaha, Jakkhaggaha and Bhūyagaha, also cf Caraka, cikitsasthāna ch 9

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²²⁷ Anta 6

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²²⁸ Brh Sū 6 12 and its Bhāya also 5 5518-26, 5540-7 3 2494-7,

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²²⁹ Ibid p 456 f, also 4 4962-4

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²³⁰ Ācā cū P 331

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²³¹ Bṛh. Bhā. 1 2380, Viseṣacūrṇi.

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²³² P 89

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²³³ *Gandatindu* tree is mentioned in the *Gandatindu Jātaka* (No 520), V, p 99

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²³⁴ A *Yaksa* with a bell round the neck is referred to in the *Vinayavastu* of the Mūlasarvāstivāda, p 12, *Gilgit Manuscripts*, Vol 3, Pt 2, also *Mahābhā* IX 46 24

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²³⁵ *Ava. cū* II, p 227

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²³⁶ *Vya Bhā* 7 313, *Āra cū* II, p 229, *Brh Bhā* 2 1312

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Like *Jakkhas* the *Vānamantaris* or the *Jakkhinīs* also played an important role in ancient Indian life. The *Vānamantari Sālejjā* is said to have paid reverence to Mahāvīra,²³⁷ whereas *Katapūtanā* gave him trouble.²³⁸ Then the *Guyhagas* are mentioned. There was a belief among the people that the *Guyhagas* were residents of Kailāsa and lived in this world in the form of dogs and hence dogs were to be treated with respect.²³⁹ It is said that the *Guyhagas* like the *Devas* neither touched the earth nor winked their eyes.²⁴⁰

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²³⁷ *Ava cū* p 294

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²³⁸ *Ibid*, 490, cf the *Ayoghara Jātaka* (IV, No 510), p 491, also *Rāmāyana*, V 24

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²³⁹ *Nisī cū* 13, p 865

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²⁴⁰ *Ogh Nir* P 150a, cf Hopkins op cit, p 147f, "The world of Guhyakas was for those who died by sword, not ignobly, but not bravely" Also see *Kathāsāritsāgara*, I, App I

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Various feasts and festivals were celebrated in honour of the *Jakkhas*. The pilgrimage to Bhandiravana, the abode of Bhandira *Jakkha* was a popular deity in Mathurā.²⁴¹ Kundalamentha was another deity whose feast was celebrated near Bharuyakaccha.²⁴² Then the feasts were celebrated in honour of the *Vānamantara* gods after completion of a new site²⁴³ and the drums were beaten in their honour.²⁴⁴

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²⁴¹ *Ava cū* p 281, the famous *nyagrodha* tree of Vrndāvana was called Bahandira (*Mahābhārata*, II 53 8)

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²⁴² *Brh Bhā*, 3150.

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²⁴³ *Ibid*, 3 4769

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²⁴⁴ *Das. cū* p 48,

Shrines and Temples of the Jakkhas (Jakkhāyatana)

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The abode of a *Jakkha* is often referred to as a *ceiya* (Pali *cetiya*) or *āyatana* in the Jain canons. In the Epics *caitya* was intimately associated with the place where Vedic sacrifice had been performed. Here sometimes *caitya* is no more than a sacred tree or a tree with an altar which is termed as resort of the *Devas*, *Yaksas*, *Rāksasas* etc., and hence not to be injured. In the *Rāmāyana* we come across words such as *caityagṛha*, *caityaprāsāda* and *caityavṛksa*. In the *Yājñavalkya smṛti*, *caityas* serve the boundary limits of a village or a *janapada*. Kautilya refers to *caityas* as houses of belong to the hostile group.²⁵¹ In Jain canons the term vānamantara is commonly used for Yaksas and Rāksasas.²⁵² Like Jakkhama-ha, Bhūyamaha was also considered as one of the four great festivals and was celebrated on the full-moon day of the month of caitra as we have seen Bhūyaggala or the obsession by the evil spirit is mentioned The persons suffering from the obsession of the evil spirits were treated by Bhūyavijjā, which prescribed soothing rites (sāntikamma) and offering of bali to deva, asura, gandhavva, jakkha, rakkhasa and other deities. The persons versed in demonology (bhūyavāya) are referred to. There were dealers in antidotes and charmers (gārudiya · bhojja bhatta . catta) who knew the science of spirits or exorcism and by means of various ceremonies, enchantments and preservatives (akkhāmandala) cured²⁵³ those possessed

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²⁵¹ Hopkins, op cit, p. 36f Three tests of recognising a Bhūta are mentioned: it has no shadow, it cannot stand turneric and it always speaks with a nasal twang (Kathā-saritsāgara I, App I) Also see Rose, Tribes and castes of Punjab and N W Province Vol I pp 203 ff

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²⁵² The Uttarā (36 207) gives eight classes of Vānamantara gods viz Pr āya Bhūya Jakkha Rakkhasa, Kinnara, Kimpurisa, Mahoraga and Gandhavva The following eight sacred trees are dedicated to these deities, kalamba, tulasi vata, kandaka asoka curpā nāga and tenduya (Thā 8 654)

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²⁵³ Uttarā Tī 1, p 5 Uttarā Tī 12, p 174, d Āva Tī (Han) p 399a1

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The belief in ghosts in ancient days was so prevalent that the credulous people even thought it to be a marketable commodity The Brhatkalpa Bhāsya refers to a shop called kuttyāvana,²⁵⁴ where everything living or non-living was available It is said that there were nine such shops in Ujjeni during the reign of Candapajjota Rāyagaha also had such shops²⁵⁵

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²⁵⁴ For the fanciful meaning of the term see Brhatkalpa Bhāsya 3 4214, Tī 11 p 413a

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²⁵⁵ Brh. Bhā 3 4214-23

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The Pisācas are smaller demons associated with Bhūtas They were supposed to eat flesh and drink blood The description of a Pisāca is given in the Nāyādhammakahā.²⁵⁶ The Pisācas were supposed to haunt the cemeteries and people offered them bali on dark nights The wrestlers were asked to visit cemeteries on dark nights and offer food to a Bhūta If they returned victorious they were appointed as king's wrestlers²⁵⁷

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²⁵⁶ 8 p 99

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²⁵⁷ Vya Bhā 1 p 92a f, Uttarā Tī. 3, p 74a

(10) Ajjā and (11) Koṭṭakiriyā

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Ajjā and Kottakiriyā are two different forms of the goddess Durgā,²⁵⁸ who is also called Candiyā The Ācārānga cūni refers to the worship (jāga)

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²⁵⁸ In Indian mythology Durgā is fond of drink and flesh and she is called Durgā because she saves from durga or difficulty Her sign is a peacock's tail and she wears diadem and snakes She has four arms and faces and carries bow, discus, noose and other weapons As slayer she is Kartabhanāsini and Mahisarkpriyā (rejoicing in the blood of the demons she slays)—Hopkins, op cit, p 224

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Hemapura was another place where the festival of Inda was in vogue. The Bṛhatkalpa Bhāṣya refers to Indatthāna around which gathered the five hundred girls of high family of the town with oblations (bali) flowers and incense pots (dhūpakadacchuya) in their hands, praying Inda for their good luck (sobhagga)184. Polisapura is mentioned as another centre of Inda festival 185.

(2) Khandamaha

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In Hindu mythology Skanda or Kārtikeya181 was the son of Siva, and the god of war. He was the commander-in-chief of the army of gods in their war with Taraka, a powerful demon, and is represented as riding a peacock 185. The festival in honour of Kanda, as it has been stated, was celebrated on the full-moon day of Āsaḍha. This festival was in vogue during the lifetime of Mahavira. We are told that when the Teacher reached Savatthi, a well decorated image of Kanda was taken out in a chariot in procession 186.

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The shrine of Skanda, Kulala and other deities are referred to; their images were made of wood and oil lamps remained burning in the shrines during night 187.

(3) Ruddamahā

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There are eleven Rudras in Indian mythology. They are represented as companions of Indra, servants of Siva and of his son and also as the escort of Yama who appears surrounded by them 188. The shrine of Rudra (Ruddaghara), who was considered a great deity (mahā-deva) is mentioned along with those of Māī (Cāmuṇḍā), Iḍḍa and Duvgā 189. The Vyavahāra Bhāṣya refers to the temples (ayatana) of Rudra, Idambara, Jakkha (Pāṇa), and Māī, which were built on the bones of dead bodies of human beings 190. We are told that like the images of Kanda and Mukunda, the images of Rudra also was made of wood 191.

(4) Mukundamaha

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In the Epic Baladeva is represented as a rustic god called Lāngalin, "ploughman", his weapon being the ploughshare. His head is wreathed

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182 4 51 53 183 Inta 6 p 11 184 The Mbh II 5 4 mention Kumara Kartikeya as the presiding deity of Rohitaka also see Af hatha, IX 4) 185 Hopkins, op cit p 227 f 186 Ia cit p 31 187 Brh Bha 2 346b f 188 Hopkins op cit p 173 for the development of the idea of Rudra-Siva see Bhandarkar's Saivism etc, p 102 f 189 Vise 1 p 236 (MSS) 190 7 313 191 Ia cit p 115 with snakes and his standard is a palm with three heads. His palm-sign indicates his love of wine¹⁹³ The worship of the Mukunda and the Vāsudeva were prevalent during the life-time of Mahāvīra near Sāvatthī and Ālabhiyā. The images of Baladeva were equipped with a plough-share (nangala)¹⁹³

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¹⁹³ Ā.a Nīr 481

(5) Sivamaaha

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¹⁹⁴ Certain stone lingas have been found in the Indus valley which show that the cult was a very popular one in those days Przyluski in his paper on 'Non-Aryan Loans in Indo-Aryan' has shown that both the words langula (plough) and linga (penis) are of Austro-Asiatic origin in their origin and in their etymology they mean one and the same thing The linga worship was of an Aryan origin is clearly shown by the opprobrious terms applied to the phallic worshippers in Rigveda (Pre-Aryan Elements in Indian Culture Atul K Sur the Calcutta Review, Nov-Dec 1932 p 241 f) also see Rose, Tribes and castes of Punjab and N W Province Vol I pp 260 ff

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Śiva or Maheśvara was the lord of Bhūtas, burner of Kāma and the father of Skanda in Indian mythology His chief deeds were to drink the world-destroying poison, destroy Dakṣa's sacrifice and receive the falling Ganges in his mattered hair A festival in his honour as mountain-god is held in the spring-month vaiśākha Śiva is also called Umāpati¹⁹⁵ According to a Jain legend, Śiva or Maheśvara was the son of Sujetthā, the daughter of Cetaka by mendicant Pedhāla¹⁹⁶

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¹⁹⁵ Hopkins, op cit , pp 219-226

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¹⁹⁶ It is said that once the nun Sujetthā was practising penance when Pedhāla approached her and creating mist (dhūmikā) before her eyes cohabited with her In course of time Sujetthā bore Satvaki, who became versed in magical spells (vijjā) The magical spell Mahārohini made a hole in his forehead and entered his body Later on this hole was transformed into a third eye After some time Satyaki killed his father because he had raped the royal virgin Sujetthā Then Satyaki became an overlord of magical spells (vijjācakka-vatti) and was called Malesara by Indra Mahesara did not like Brāhmanas and so he violated the chasity of hundreds of Brāhmana girls He committed adultery with all other queens of Pajjoya excepting Sivā Now Mahesara began to live with Umā, a beautiful courtesan of Ujjeni. Once when he was sporting with her he was killed by Pajjoya's servants When Nandisara, a friend of Mahesara came to know of this, he got very angry, and seized with the vijjās, in order to kill the citizens he ascended the sky with a slab of stone. Pajjoya asked his pardon and since then the phallus of Sivā was placed in each and every city for worship (Āva cū II, p 175 f), Hopkins op cit , p 226

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Like the worship of Khanda and Mukunda the worship of Śiva also was in vogue during the life-time of Mahāvīra.¹⁹⁷ The worship of Dhendra-sivā also came into being from this time.¹⁹⁸ An image of Śiva is referred to which was worshipped with leaves, flowers and guggulu (bdellium) and was given a bath with the ichor of an elephant (gallodaya).¹⁹⁹

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¹⁹⁷ Āa Nīr 509

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¹⁹⁸ Āa cū p 312, Brh Bhā 5 5928

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¹⁹⁹ Brh. Bhā. Pi. 804.

(6) Vesamaṇamaha

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Vaiśravaṇa or Kubera is the guardian of the north and the lord of all treasure in Indian mythology His floating palace is carried by Guhyakas where he sits clothed in jewels and surrounded by many women He wears bright ear-rings, is very wealthy has a heavenly seat and foot-stool and is refreshed by breezes from Nandana and Alakā Naṅnī His city Alakā is situated on mount Kailasa and he is over-lord of Yakṣas, Rākṣasas and Guhyakas ²⁰⁰ We are told that Visamaṇa was the lord of the Yakṣas and guarded the northern direction ²⁰¹

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¹⁹² Hopkins, op. cit , p 212

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²⁰⁰ Hopkins op cit pp 142-145

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²⁰¹ Jī ā 3, p 281

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(7) Nāgamahā ²⁰³

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The general abode of the divine serpents, according to Indian mythology, is below earth, where is found Śeṣa, the Nāga of a thousand heads, who supports the earth from beneath ²⁰³ According to a Jain legend, prince Bhagīraha, the grandson of Bharaha, was the first founder of Nāgabali. It is stated that after the sons of Sagara were ²⁰⁴ burnt to death by the Nāga king, Bhagīraha went to draw the water of the Ganges from the neighbouring villages of Atthāvaya Bhagīraha worshipped the Nāgas with bali, flowers etc, and since then the Nāgabali came into vogue.²⁰⁵

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²⁰³ There is a race of people called Nāgas residing upon the elevated region between Assam and Manipur, who are said to be universally dreaded for the devastations they commit upon the inhabitants of the plains, and it is possible that the mythological Nagas may have had their origin in the fears produced by the ravages of the ancient mountaineers, Hardy, Manual of Buddhism p 45 London 1880 see also Rhys Davids Buddhist India, pp 220 ff Atul K Sur Calcutta Review Nov Dec 1932 p 209 Dr Vogel's Indian Serpent Lore (1 3 1f) for various theories of origin of Nāga worship

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²⁰³ Hopkins op cit pp 23 29

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²⁰⁴ The fire-like action ascribed to the Nāga poison is exemplified by various Brāhmanic and Buddhist legends For example according to the Mahābhārata the Nāga Takṣaka by his fiery bite reduced a banyan tree to ashes and king Parīkṣit's hall on fire Even the pool of the Yamunā is described as over-cast with a dense smoke caused by the poison-born fire of the Nāga Kāliya (Dr Vogel op cit p 10)

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²⁰⁵ Uttarā 11 18 p 231a f

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The worship of Nāga (Nāgajanna) is specially mentioned In the north-east of Sāgey ²⁰⁶ there lay a Nāga shrine (Nāgaghara) with an image of a serpent ²⁰⁷ The festival of Nāga (Nāgayaṭṭā) was celebrated with great pomp and ceremony by the queen Paumāvaī The city was swept clean and was sprinkled over with water Then a flower-house (pupphamandava) was made near the shrine where a beautiful huge garland was suspended The queen took bath and in the company of her friends and relations proceeded to the shrine She bathed in the lake and with still moist robe plucked the lotuses and with various flowers, fruits and the incense pot in her hand, entered the temple, where she cleaned the image with a brush (lomahatthaga), burnt incense and worshipped the deity 208 Mention may be made of the worship of Pārśva by Dharaṇendra, who belongs to the Nāgakumāra gods. 209

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²⁰⁶ Mathurā is mentioned as a big centre of Nāga worship where a number of Nāga images have been recovered Then inu Vitastā in Kashmir is said to be the abode of Nāga Takṣaka (Dr Vogel, op cit, pp 41f, 229) Also see Rose, Tribes and castes of Panjab and N W Province, vol I pp 147 ff

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²⁰⁷ The Arthasastra (p 273) mentions an image of a serpent with a hole-hole in it

(8) Jakkhamahā

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The worship of the Jakkhas was most common in ancient India and so every important city had its own shrine dedicated to the Jakkha 210 We are told that by practising self-restraint one is born among the Yaksa 211 and the Yaksas including the Devas, the Dānavas, the Gandharvas and the Kinnaras pay veneration to those who practise celibacy 212 Reference is made to the Jakkha Gaṇḍiṭinduṅga of Vārāṇasi, who guarded the great sage Mātanga in the Tiṇḍuga garden. 213 Bihelaga was another Jakkha who paid reverence to Lord Mahāvīra when the latter was engrossed in meditation. 214 The Nāyādhammakahā speaks of another Jakkha of beneficent character, viz., Selaga This Jakkha had the appearance of a horse (āsarūpadhārī) and on every caturdasī, aṣṭamī, amāvasyā and pūrṇamāsī helped people He is said to have saved the two merchants from the clutches of a cruel goddess and carried them on his back to Campā 215

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The Jakkhas were believed to be the presiding deities of the expectant mother The Vivāgasuya refers to Gaṅgadattā who had no issue She took plenty of flowers, clothes, scents, garlands, and ornaments and in the company of her friends and relatives visited the shrine of Umbaradara Jakkha There she cleaned the image with a brush of peacock feathers sprinkled it with water, wiped it with woollen cloth pumbale and dressed it nicely. Then she worshipped the Jakkha with flowers etc. and prayed to the deity to bless her with a child. 216 Then we hear of Subhaddā, who promised the Surambara Jakkha one hundred buffaloes if blessed with a son 217 Bhaddā was another woman who waited upon

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208 Nāyā 8, p 97 f. for the Buddhist conception of a Jakkha 209 Āva Nir. 335 Ti p 385 This legend may be compared with the Bauddh Muchilinda, the serpent king, sheltering Buddha against wind and rain (See op cit. pp 102-4, 126) 210 Even now such deities or Jakshas are regarded as protectors of the village and are worshipped by men of all castes and creeds believing that they protect each village from epidemics of diseases (Dist Gaz of M.P) The following thirteen Jakshas are mentioned: Punnabhadda Manibhadda Subhadda, Haritabhadda, Sumanobhadda, Vyatpūtakabhadda, Subhadda Sarvabhadda, Manusvavaksa Vanādhipau, Vanāhāra, Rūpajakkha and Jakkhottama (Abhidhāna Rājendra Kosa under "Jakkha") The first two Jakshas according to the Mahāmāyūrī, were brothers and were the presiding deities of Brahmavati (The Great contents of the Mahā by Dr Sylvain Levi, tr V S Agrawal, J of U P H Vol. XV, Pt. II) Manibhadda is also mentioned in the Mahābhārata (II. 10) 211 Uttarā Sū 3 14f 212 Ibid .16, 1n 213 Ibid 12 and the com p. 173a. 214 Āva. Nir. 487 215 9, p. 127 : cf Valāhassa Jātaka (II. No 196) p 129, the ship-wrecked men are rescued by a winged horse 216 7, p. 42 f; also cf. Hatthipāla Jātaka (IV, No. 509), p. 474.

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of Caṇḍiyā with the sacrifice of goats, buffaloes and human beings to please the low type (*appasattha*) of god.²⁵⁹ According to the Commentator the peaceful goddess Durgā is called *Umā* who stands like Kūṣmāṇḍinī. The same goddess Durgā²⁶⁰ when rides on a buffalo is called *Koṭṭavī*.²⁶¹

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²⁵⁹ p 61

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²⁶⁰ The goddess Devī is worshipped in various forms according to her imagined age. When she is worshipped as an old baby she is known by the name of Sandhyā of two years Sarasvatī, of seven years Caṇḍikā of eight years, Subhadrā of nine years Durgā of ten years Bhadrakālī of thirteen Vaiṣṇavī of sixteen, Iḍā (Gopinath Rao, *Elements of Hindu Iconography*, p 532 f)

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²⁶¹ Āy-kkuḍi, p 105a

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