[Pramāṇa](https://indike.org/pramana/) › [Studies](https://indike.org/pramana/ins) › [Polity, law and society](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity) › [Life in Ancient India as Depicted in the Jain Canons, with Commentaries: An Administrative, Economic, Social and Geographical Survey](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947) › c19 # Life in Ancient India as Depicted in the Jain Canons, with Commentaries: An Administrative, Economic, Social and Geographical Survey c19: Chapter I: Jain Conception of the World Life in Ancient India as Depicted in the Jain Canons, with Commentaries: An Administrative, Economic, Social and Geographical Survey c19 - **Language:** English ### Chapter I: Jain Conception of the World ### [c19.2](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c19.2) According to the Jain conception, the world consists of innumerable spheres, continents and oceans each one surrounding the preceding one like a sheath. ### [c19.3](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c19.3) There are seven kṣetras or zones in Jambudvīpa which is the first continent, and may correspond to Asia (India, according to Buddhists). They are Bharaha, Hemavaya,¹ Hari,² Videha, Rammaga, Heraṇṇavaya and Erāvaya.³ Bounding these zones are six mountain-ranges, viz., Himavata, Mahāhimavata, Niṣadha,⁴ Nīla, Rukmin and Sikharin.⁵ In the centre of Jambudvīpa is located Meru.⁶ ### [c19.4](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c19.4) ¹ Haimavata and Hairanyavata are identified with regions in Tibet known for gold. Schubring, Die Lehre Der Jainas, p. 144 ### [c19.5](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c19.5) ² Harivarṣa included the western portion of Tibet (G. D., p. 74). ### [c19.6](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c19.6) ³ Also cf. Mahābhā VI. 6 7 ff. ### [c19.7](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c19.7) ⁴ It is identified with "Paropanisad" of the Greeks, now called the Hindukush (p 141) ### [c19.8](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c19.8) ⁵ Also cf. Mahābhā. VI. 6 4 f. ### [c19.9](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c19.9) ⁶ The Buddhists call it Sineru, Meru, Sumeru, Hemameru and Mahāmeru It is the highest conceivable mountain according to them. The Purāṇas also speak of Sumeru mountain having the altitude of one hundred thousand yojanas, (Law, India described, p. 2 ff). ### [c19.10](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c19.10) Bharaha is 526 6/19 yojanas in extent. It is situated to the south of Culla Himavanta and between the eastern and western seas. By the two large rivers Gaṅgā and Sindhu, and the Vaitāḍhya mountain-range it is divided into six portions.⁷ Videha, also known as Mahāvideha, is divided into four parts, viz., Puvvavideha (eastern Videha), Avaravideha (western Videha), Devakuru and Uttarakuru.⁸ ### [c19.11](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c19.11) ⁷ Jambu. 1-10. ### [c19.12](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c19.12) ⁸ It is identified with the northern portion of Garwal and Hūṇa desa (G. D., p. 213) ### [c19.13](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c19.13) Puvvavideha,⁹ which is also called Bhadrāśva in the Brahmāṇḍa Purāṇa, is said to be watered by the Sītā, the mythical prototype of the Yarkand and Yellow rivers, already referred to Sītā is the same as one of the fourteen great rivers in the Jain mythology referred to in the Uttarādhyayana Sūtra.¹⁰ Puvvavideha and Avaravideha are divided into different Vijayas¹¹ or provinces which have their respective cities ### [c19.14](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c19.14) ⁹ It is identified with Eastern Turkistan and North China (Raychaudhuri, Studies in Indian Antiquities, pp 75-6). ### [c19.15](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c19.15) ¹⁰ 11.28. Also mentioned in the Mahābhā. Śānti p 82.45. ### [c19.16](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c19.16) ¹¹ Some of these Vijayas such as Cakkavaṭṭivijaya (Ava Cū., p. 133), Ramaṇijja (Uttara Ṭī, 18, p 243 a), Gandhilāvatī (Ava. Cū., p 165), Salilāvai (Nāyā 8, p 90), Sugandhā (Uttara. Ṭī, 23, p. 286 a), Sukaccha (ibid), Pokkhalāvai (Nāyā 14, p. 157) Mangalāvatī (Ava. Nir., 175) find mention in the Jain texts. ### [c19.17](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c19.17) On the above mentioned mountain-ranges there are six lakes, viz., Padma, Mahāpadma, Tigiñchi, Kesari, Mahāpuṇḍarīka and Puṇḍarīka from which flow the great fourteen rivers The first two rivers, viz, Gaṅgā and Sindhu flow from the lake Padma situated on the Himavata mountain.¹² ### [c19.18](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c19.18) ¹² is mountain is the same as the Himalaya mountain and is known in Pali as Himava, Himācala and Himavanta It is one of the seven mountain-ranges that surround Gandhamādana Seven great Himalayan lakes are also mentioned in Pali literature, Anottata being the first Anottata, like the Padma lake of the Jains, is a lotus lake with four outlets on its four sides and is identified with Bindusāra in the Mahābhārata and Mānasa sarovara of popular fame (Law, op cit, pp 5, 10, 12) ### [c19.19](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c19.19) In the centre of Bharaha is Mount Vaitāḍhya, dividing it into north and south On this mountain there are kingdoms of the Vidyādhara kings ### [c19.20](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c19.20) The first ocean surrounding Jambudvipa is Lavanoda or the Indian ocean.¹³ Then comes the continent of Dhātakikhaṇḍa which surrounds the Lavanoda and is twice in extent Then we have the Kāloda ocean and then Puskaradvīpa ¹⁴ In the middle of Puskaradvīpa is situated the mountain-range Mānusottara like a city wall which is the ultima thule of the Human World Thus according to the Jain conception, the Human World consists of two and a half continents, viz, Jambudvipa, Dhātakikhaṇḍa and half of Puskaradvīpa ### [c19.21](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c19.21) ¹³ the Jain texts mention the merchants of Campā and Hatthīsīsa crossing the Lavana ocean and going out for trades, it seems that Lavana was no other ocean than the Indian ocean (cf Nāyā 8 p 97 9 p 121, 17 p 201) Lavana ocean is mentioned in the Mahābhā VI 5 15, VI 1 6 ### [c19.22](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c19.22) ¹⁴ ne identify it with a portion of Central Asia commencing from the north of Oxus, including Western Tartary, (G D, p 163) ### [c19.23](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c19.23) Surrounding Puskara we have various other oceans and continents, which are each twice as large as the preceding one The eighth continent is Nandīsaradīva which is described as a land of the gods with beautiful gardens. It is mentioned that there were fifty two statues of the Arhats here which were frequently visited by gods¹⁵. The last continent is Svayambhuramaṇa.¹⁶ ### [c19.24](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c19.24) ¹⁵ 2 Cū p 397 f, Uttarā Ṭī 9 p 138 ### [c19.25](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c19.25) ¹⁶ Jambu. 1, 4, Also I S P, Vo II, 3 552 to 749, also ‘some cosmological Ideas of the Jainas’, Amulayachandra Sen, I. H Q 1932, pp 43-48. ### [c19.26](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c19.26) It is stated that when Mahāvīra sojourned in the garden of Subhū-mibhāga in Sāketa, he declared the following Sūtra restricting the movements of the Jain monks : ### [c19.27](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c19.27) "The monks or nuns may wander towards the east as far as Anga-Magadha, towards the south as far as Kosambī, towards the west as far as Thūnā and towards the north as far as Kunālā."\[¹⁷\] ### [c19.28](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c19.28) ¹⁷ Brh Sū 1 50 , Also Nisi Bhā 16. p 1111 ### [c19.29](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c19.29) Later on, king Sampai, who was a great patron of Jain religion, made other countries suitable for the movements of the Jain monks, and consequently the following twenty five and a half countries were declared as Āryan :— ### [c19.30](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c19.30) | | Kingdom | Capital | | 1. | Magadha | Rāyagiha | | 2 | Anga | Campā | | 3. | Vanga | Tāmalitti | | 4. | Kalinga | Kañcanapura | | 5 | Kāsī | Vānārasī | | 6 | Kosala | Sāketa | | 7 | Kuru | Gayapura | | 8 | Kusattā | Soriya | | 9 | Pañcāla | Kampillapura | | 10 | Jangala | Ahicchattā | | 11. | Suratthā | Bāravai | | 12. | Videha | Mihilā | | 13. | Vaccha | Kosambī | | 14 | Sandilla | Nandipura | | 15. | Malaya | Bhaddilapura | | 16. | Vaccha | Verāda | | 17. | Varanā | Acchā | | 18 | Dasanna | Mattiyāvai | | 19. | Cedi | Suttivai | | 20 | Sindhu Sovīra | Viibhaya | | 21. | Sūrasena | Mahurā | | 22. | Bhangi | Pāvā | | 23. | Purivattā | Māsapurī | | 24. | Kunālā | Sāvatthi | | 25. | Lāda ( or Lādha) | Kodivaisa | | 25½ | Kegaiaddha | Seyaviyā\[¹⁸\] | ### [c19.31](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c19.31) ¹⁸ Panna 1. 37, p. 55a , Brh Bhā Vr 1. 3263 , also Pravacanasāroddhāra, p 446. ### [c19.32](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c19.32) These countries were called Āryan because, it is said that the \*Titthayaras\*, the \*Gakkavattis\*, the \*Baladevas\* and the \*Vāsudevas\* were born here. ### [c19.33](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c19.33) These great men are said to have attained omniscience in these countries and by attending to their preachings a number of people were enlightened and had taken to ascetic life.¹⁹ ### [c19.34](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c19.34) ¹⁹ Brh Bhā Vr 1 326b ff. ### [c19.35](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c19.35) 1 MAGADHA (RĀYAGIHA)²⁰ ### [c19.36](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c19.36) ²⁰ For all reference of this section see Chapter IV. ### [c19.37](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c19.37) Magadha, which occupied the district now called Bihar, is a very old kingdom and was counted among the sixteen \*Janapadas\* in the \*Bhagavatī\*,²¹ the rest being Anga, Vanga, Malaya, Mālavaya, Accha, Vaccha, Koccha, Pāḍha, Lādha, Vajji, Moli, Kāsī, Kosala, Avāha (?) and Sambhuttara (Suhmottara). It was a great centre of activities of Mahāvīra and in fact it was after the name of this country that the language in which Mahāvīra is said to have preached his religion was called Ardhamāgadhī. Magadha was a holy place for Jains although the Brāhmanas were not allowed to enter this country, except on a pilgrimage. A Jain pilgrim has aptly remarked that according to the Brāhmanas, if a crow died in Kāsī, it would attain salvation, but if a human being died in Magadha he would be born as a donkey.²³ ### [c19.38](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c19.38) ²¹ 15 ### [c19.39](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c19.39) Rāyagiha, or the modern Rajgir, was counted among the ten capital cities of India, others being Campā, Mahurā, Vārāṇasī, Sāvatthi, Sākeya, Kampilla, Kosambi, Mihilā and Hatthināura.²³ Rāyagiha was noted for its springs known as Mahātavovatirappabha. King Seniya was the ruler of Rāyagiha. ### [c19.40](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c19.40) ²³ Thā 10 718, Nisi Su 9 19 ### [c19.41](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c19.41) Vaibhāra and Vipula were well-known hills near Rāyagiha where a number of Jain ascetics are said to have attained salvation. The famous Nālandā was a suburb of Rāyagiha. Rāyagiha was a centre of trade and the habitat of wealthy people. ### [c19.42](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c19.42) Rāyagiha was also known as Giribbaja. The fortifications of both Giribbaja and Rāyagiha are still extant, four and a half and three miles in circumference. The stone walls of Giribbaja are the oldest extant stone buildings in India.²⁴ ### [c19.43](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c19.43) ²⁴ Rhys Davids, Buddhist India, p 39. ### [c19.44](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c19.44) 2 ANGA (CAMPĀ) ### [c19.45](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c19.45) The Anga dominions which are identical with the country about the modern districts of Bhagalpur and Monghyr included at one time Magadha. It is included among the sixteen \*Janapadas\*. ### [c19.46](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c19.46) Campā, which was situated near Bhagalpur, was considered among the ten capitals. It was a beautiful and prosperous city in ancient India, a detailed description of which is given in the \*Ovāiya\*.²⁵ ### [c19.47](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c19.47) ²² Prācīnatīrthamālā Saṅgraha Pt I, p 4. ### [c19.48](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c19.48) ²⁵ Sū. 1. ### [c19.49](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c19.49) Like Rāyagiha, Campā too was frequently visited by Mahāvīra and his disciples. It is said that when Seniya dīed, Kūniya shifted his capital from Rāyagiha to Campā It was in Campā that the seventh and the eighth Angas of the Jain canon were explained to Jambu by his teacher Ajja Su hamma Dadhivāhana was another powerful sovereign of Campā whose daughter Candanā became the first female disciple of Mahāvīra Like Sammeya, Campā also was considered a holy place by Jains Campā was a big centre of trade and merchants travelled from here as far as Mihilā, Ahicchattā, Pihuṇḍa and other places with their merchandise. ### [c19.50](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c19.50) 3 VANGA (TĀMALITTI) ### [c19.51](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c19.51) Vanga (eastern Bengal) is mentioned as one of the sixteen Janapadas Vanga was a centre of trade reached by the sea. ### [c19.52](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c19.52) Tāmalittī (Tamluk) was a centre of trade and commerce and a great sea-port town. It could be reached both by land and water. Tāmalittī was noted for its fine cloth Tāmalī Moriyaputta is mentioned as a well-known layman of the city. Tāmalittiyā is stated to be a sāhā of the Jain sramaṇas. ### [c19.53](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c19.53) 4 KALINGA (KAÑCANAPURA) ### [c19.54](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c19.54) Karakandu is mentioned as the sovereign of Kalinga (Orissa) Kañcanapura was a centre of commerce and a free trade is mentioned between Laṅkā and this town ### [c19.55](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c19.55) 5 KĀSĪ (VĀRĀNASĪ) ### [c19.56](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c19.56) Kāsī was included among the sixteen Janapadas; Kāsī and Kosala were known for their eighteen confederate kings (gaṇarājā), who fought against Kūniya on the side of Ceḍaga. Kāsī was noted for its centre of trade. ### [c19.57](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c19.57) Vārānasī (Benares) was counted among the ten capitals. It was the birthplace of Pāsa and was visited by Mahāvīra. ### [c19.58](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c19.58) At the time of Hemacandra Kāsī or Vārānasī are stated to be identical. ### [c19.59](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c19.59) 6 KOSALA (SĀGEYA) ### [c19.60](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c19.60) Kosala (Oudh) was included among the sixteen Janapadas It was the birthplace of Ayala, the eighth disciple of Mahāvīra As Mahāvīra was called Vesāliya, so Usabha was known as Kosaliya, i c , one who is born in Kosala. Like Dasapura and Ujjeni, Kosala was known for its image of the Living Lord (Jīvantasāmīpadimā). ### [c19.61](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c19.61) Sāgeya is identified with modern Ayodhyā near Fyzabad and was included among the ten capital cities of Jain India. Sāgeya was visited by Pāsa and Mahāvīra, The first of these, the \*Gospel of the Hebrews\*, was used by the Jewish Christians of Palestine, and was probably a version of the Gospel of Matthew, though it contained some traditions not found in our canonical books. The \*Gospel of the Egyptians\* was used by the ascetic sects of Egypt, and was marked by a strong tendency towards mysticism and asceticism. The \*Gospel of Peter\* was used by the Docetists, and taught that Christ did not really suffer, but only appeared to do so. ### [c19.62](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c19.62) These gospels, and others like them, were not accepted by the Church as a whole, and were gradually lost or suppressed. The Church, however, felt the need for a standard collection of writings that would serve as a guide for faith and practice. This led to the formation of the New Testament canon, a process that took several centuries to complete. ### [c19.63](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c19.63) The first step in this process was the collection of the letters of Paul, which were widely circulated among the churches. Then came the four Gospels, which were accepted as the authoritative accounts of the life and teachings of Jesus. The Acts of the Apostles and the other epistles were gradually added, and finally the Book of Revelation. ### [c19.64](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c19.64) By the end of the second century, the core of the New Testament was generally accepted by the Church. The process of canonization was not a formal act of a council, but rather a gradual recognition by the churches of the writings that were most valuable for their life and worship. It was only in the fourth century that the canon was formally closed by the councils of the Church. ### [c19.65](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c19.65) The formation of the New Testament canon was a crucial event in the history of the Church. It provided a standard of faith and practice that helped to unify the Church and to protect it from the influence of heretical sects. It also ensured that the teachings of Jesus and the apostles would be preserved for future generations. ### [c19.66](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c19.66) \[Figure: OF MAHĀVĪRA (500 B.C.) SCALE 1 4 000,000 NOTE - ● INDICATES CAPITAL OF THE KINGDOMS. ○ CITIES IN GENERAL.\] ### [c19.67](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c19.67) The first of these, the \*Gospel of the Hebrews\*, was used by the Jewish Christians of Palestine, and was probably a version of the Gospel of Matthew, though it contained some traditions not found in our canonical books. The \*Gospel of the Egyptians\* was used by the ascetic sects of Egypt, and was marked by a strong tendency towards mysticism and asceticism. The \*Gospel of Peter\* was used by the Docetists, and taught that Christ did not really suffer, but only appeared to do so. ### [c19.68](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c19.68) These gospels, and others like them, were not accepted by the Church as a whole, and were gradually lost or suppressed. The Church, however, felt the need for a standard collection of writings that would serve as a guide for faith and practice. This led to the formation of the New Testament canon, a process that took several centuries to complete. ### [c19.69](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c19.69) The first step in this process was the collection of the letters of Paul, which were widely circulated among the churches. Then came the four Gospels, which were accepted as the authoritative accounts of the life and teachings of Jesus. The Acts of the Apostles and the other epistles were gradually added, and finally the Book of Revelation. ### [c19.70](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c19.70) By the end of the second century, the core of the New Testament was generally accepted by the Church. The process of canonization was not a formal act of a council, but rather a gradual recognition by the churches of the writings that were most valuable for their life and worship. It was only in the fourth century that the canon was formally closed by the councils of the Church. ### [c19.71](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c19.71) The formation of the New Testament canon was a crucial event in the history of the Church. It provided a standard of faith and practice that helped to unify the Church and to protect it from the influence of heretical sects. It also ensured that the teachings of Jesus and the apostles would be preserved for future generations. ### [c19.72](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c19.72) 7 KURU (GAYAPURA) ### [c19.73](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c19.73) Kuru is identified with Kuruksetra or Thaneshwar. Gayapura or Hatthināpura (Hastināpur) was included among the ten capital cities of Jain India. Hatthināpura was visited by Mahāvīra and Pāsa. ### [c19.74](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c19.74) 8 KUSATTA (SORIYA) ### [c19.75](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c19.75) Kusārta was situated in north of Sūrasena (Mathurā). Soriyapura which is identified with Batesar near Sakurabad station in Agra district, was situated on the bank of the Jumna. Soriyapura was the birthplace of Kanha Vāsudeva and Aritthanemi. Soriyapura was frequented by Mahāvīra. ### [c19.76](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c19.76) 9 PAÑCĀLA KAMPILAPURA ### [c19.77](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c19.77) Pañcāla is identified with Rohilkhand. Kampillapura, which is identified with modern Kampil in Farrukhabad district, was situated on the bank of the Ganges. It was included among the ten capital cities of Jain India. It is mentioned that Kampillapura was visited by Pāsa and Mahāvīra. ### [c19.78](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c19.78) 10 JANGALA (AHICCHATTĀ) ### [c19.79](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c19.79) Jangala comprised the tract between the Ganges and north Pañcāla. Ahicchattā, which is identified with modern Ramnagar in Bareilly district, was situated to the north-west of Campā. There was regular trade between the two cities. Ahicchattā was considered a holy place and was enumerated with Atihāvaṇ, Ujjinta, Gayaggapura Dhammacakka and Rahāvatta mountain. It is said that Ahicchattā was visited by Pārsva. ### [c19.80](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c19.80) 11 SURATTHA (BARAVAI) ### [c19.81](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c19.81) It is mentioned that Surattha (Kathiawar) was a non-Aryan country, but from the time of king Samprati it was declared suitable for the preachings of the Jain monks. It is said that Kalakācārya had brought here ninety six kings from Persia, and consequently this country was divided into six mandalas. Surattha was a centre of trade and commerce and a number of merchants used to visit this country. Bāravai (Dvāravatī) is described as a beautiful and prosperous city. To the north-west to the city was situated the mountain Revaya (Girnar), which is described as dear to the Dasara kings where Aritthanemi is said to have attained salvation. It is said that Aritthanemi ordained a number of persons here including Paumavatī the queen of Kanha and the sons of Kanha and Baladeva. It is mentioned that, as predicted by Aritthanemi, Bāravai was destroyed due to excessive drinking and by fire. Bāravai was a sea-port and being a centre of trade, was visited by various merchants and tradesmen. ### [c19.82](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c19.82) 12 VIDEHA (MIHILĀ) ### [c19.83](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c19.83) Lord Mahāvīra was born in Videha which is identified with modern Tirhut. ### [c19.84](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c19.84) Mihilā, which is identified with Janakpur within the border of Nepal, was included among the ten capital cities of Jain India. It is mentioned that this town was visited by Mahāvīra and Ajja Mahāgiri. ### [c19.85](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c19.85) 13 VACCHA (KOSAMBĪ) ### [c19.86](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c19.86) Vaccha was known as Vamsa or Vatsa in the Buddhist literature; it was the region near Prayag. ### [c19.87](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c19.87) Kosambī, which is identified with Kosam in Allahabad district, was included among the ten capitals of Jain India. It was situated on the bank of the river Jumna. It is said that Kosambī was visited by Pāsa, Mahāvīra, Ajja Suhatthi and Ajja Mahāgiri. ### [c19.88](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c19.88) King Sayānīya was a well-known ruler of Kosambi. After he died, Udayana ascended the throne and governed the kingdom. ### [c19.89](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c19.89) 14 SANDIBBHA OR SĀṆDILYA (NANDIPURA) ### [c19.90](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c19.90) Sāṇdilya may be identified with Sandilla, a town in Oudh. Nandipura may be identified with Nundgaon in Oudh. ### [c19.91](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c19.91) 15 MALAYA (BHADDILAPURA) ### [c19.92](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c19.92) Malaya, which was located in south of Magadha, was counted among the sixteen Janapadas. ### [c19.93](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c19.93) Bhaddilapura, which is identified with the Kuluhā hill in the Hazaribagh district, was the birthplace of the tenth Titthayara and was visited by Mahāvīra, who is said to have passed fifth rainy season here. ### [c19.94](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c19.94) 16 VACCHA OR MATSYA (VAIRĀDA). ### [c19.95](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c19.95) Matsya is identified with modern Alwar and Jaipur territories. Vairāda is identified with the region forty one miles to the north of Jaipur. ### [c19.96](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c19.96) 17 VARAṆĀ OR VARUṆĀ (ACCHĀ) ### [c19.97](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c19.97) Varaṇā was known by the name of Uccānagara which is identified with Bulandshahar in the United Provinces. Uccānagarī is mentioned as a sāhā of the Jain sramaṇas. Acchā is included among the sixteen Janapadas. ### [c19.98](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c19.98) 18 DASANṆA (MATTIYĀVAI) ### [c19.99](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c19.99) Dasannṇa is identified with eastern Malwa. King Dasannṇabhadda, who was ordained by Mahāvīra, is said to have reigned in this country. Mattiyāvai is identified with the country of the Bhojas by the side of Paṇṇāsa (Banas). ### [c19.100](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c19.100) 19 CEDI (SUTTIMAI) ### [c19.101](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c19.101) King Sisupāla was known as the lord of Cedi which is modern Bundelkhand. Suttimai was located near Banda in the Central Provinces. ### [c19.102](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c19.102) 20 SINDHU SOVĪRA (VIBHAYAPATTANA) ### [c19.103](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c19.103) According to Abhayadeva, the country of Sovira or modern Sindh was situated near the river Sindhu and hence it was known Sindhu-Sovīra. Vibhaya may be identified with Bhera in the Punjab. ### [c19.104](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c19.104) 21 SŪRASENA (MAHURĀ) ### [c19.105](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c19.105) Mahurā was the capital of Sūrasena which is identified with the region round Mathurā. Mathurā was one of the most ancient places and was included among the ten capitals of Jain India. Mathurā was a great centre of the Jains. It is said that ninety six villages were attached to it, where people installed the images of Arhat in their houses and the courtyards. There was a jewelled thūpa in Mathurā over which a quarrel is recorded to have arisen between Jains and Buddhists. In later literature of the Jains, however, five stūpas are referred to in Mathurā. ### [c19.106](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c19.106) Mathurā is said to have been visited by Mahāvīra, Ajja Mangu and Ajja Rakkhiya. Mathurā was a centre of heretical ascetics and was known for the pilgrimage to the temple of Bhandira Jakkha.²⁸ Mathurā was a centre of trade. People lived here on trade and not on agriculture. The goods were carried here by land. There was a free trade between Mahurā, also known as Uttara Mahurā, and Dakkhina Mahurā or Pandu Mahurā. ### [c19.107](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c19.107) ²⁸ The Vividhatirtha Kalpa (P 18) mentions the following gardens (vana) in Mathurā Lohajangha, Mahu, Billa, Tāla, Kumua, Vinlā, Bhandira, Khaira, Kāmya, Kola, ### [c19.108](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c19.108) 22 BHANGI (PĀPĀ) ### [c19.109](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c19.109) Bharga or Bhangi included the districts of Hazaribagh and Manbhum. Mahāvīra is said to have attained salvation at Pāpā. It is said that the real name of this place was Apāpā and after the death of Mahāvīra it came to be called Pāvā. But this is different from above. ### [c19.110](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c19.110) 23 PURIVAṬṬĀ (MĀSAPURĪ) ### [c19.111](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c19.111) Māsapurī was the capital of Purivaṭṭā. Māsapurī is mentioned as a \*sāhā\* of the Jain \*śramaṇas\*. ### [c19.112](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c19.112) This country is not identified. ### [c19.113](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c19.113) 24 KUṆĀLĀ (SĀVATTHI) ### [c19.114](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c19.114) It is recorded that the country of Kuṇālā was destroyed by flood²⁷ and after thirteen years of this incident Mahāvīra attained \*kevalahood\*. ### [c19.115](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c19.115) ²⁷ Cf. the Pali legends record that Anāthapiṇḍika, the famous donor of the Jetavana monastery in Śrāvasti lost eighteen crores by the action of river Acirāvatī; \*Dhammapada A.\* III, p 10, also Vol. I, p. 360. ### [c19.116](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c19.116) Sāvatthī was included among the ten capitals of Jain India, and was visited by Pāsa and his chief disciple Kesikumāra. A historical meeting is said to have taken place here between Kesī and Goyama, the two representatives of Pāsa and Mahāvīra respectively. Sāvatthī was visited by Mahāvīra frequently. ### [c19.117](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c19.117) Sāvatthī was six leagues north of Sāketa and was situated on the bank of Acirāvatī.²⁸ ### [c19.118](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c19.118) ²⁸ Rhys Davids, \*Buddhist India\*, p 40. ### [c19.119](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c19.119) 25 LĀDHA (KODIVARISA) ### [c19.120](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c19.120) Lādha or Rāḍha, which comprised the modern District of Hoogly, Howrah, Bankura, Burdwan and the east portion of Midnapur, was included among the sixteen \*Janapadas\*. This country was divided into Vajjabhūmi and Subbhabhūmi. It is said that there were very few villages in this country and its inhabitants were generally hostile to the ascetics. Mahāvīra travelled in this country and had to undergo much suffering. ### [c19.121](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c19.121) It is said that Cilāya, a Mleccha king, was reigning in Kodivarisa who joined the order under Mahāvīra in Sāketa. Kodivarisa is identified with modern Dinajpur. ### [c19.122](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c19.122) 25½ KEYAIADDHA (SEYAVIYĀ) ### [c19.123](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c19.123) Most probably Jainism did not penetrate the whole of this country and perhaps a few people came under the sphere of Jain influence and so half of this country is included among Āryan countries. Kekaya was situated at the base of Nepala in the north-east of Sāvatthī and should be considered different from Kekaya of the \*Rāmāyaṇa\* in the north. ### [c19.124](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c19.124) Seyaviyā was visited by Mahāvīra, who having crossed the Ganges proceeded to Surabhipura from here. Seyaviyā is identified with Setavya of the Buddhists. ### [c19.125](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c19.125) The first of these, the \*Gospel of the Hebrews\*, was used by the Jewish Christians of Palestine, and was probably a version of the Gospel of Matthew, though it contained some traditions not found in our canonical books. The \*Gospel of the Egyptians\* was used by the ascetic sects of Egypt, and was marked by a strong tendency towards mysticism and asceticism. The \*Gospel of Peter\* was used by the Docetists, and taught that Christ did not really suffer, but only appeared to do so. ### [c19.126](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c19.126) These gospels, and others like them, were not accepted by the Church as a whole, and were gradually lost or suppressed. The Church, however, felt the need for a standard collection of writings that would serve as a guide for faith and practice. This led to the formation of the New Testament canon, a process that took several centuries to complete. ### [c19.127](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c19.127) The first step in this process was the collection of the letters of Paul, which were widely circulated among the churches. Then came the four Gospels, which were accepted as the authoritative accounts of the life and teachings of Jesus. The Acts of the Apostles and the other epistles were gradually added, and finally the Book of Revelation. ### [c19.128](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c19.128) By the end of the second century, the core of the New Testament was generally accepted by the Church. The process of canonization was not a formal act of a council, but rather a gradual recognition by the churches of the writings that were most valuable for their life and worship. It was only in the fourth century that the canon was formally closed by the councils of the Church. ### [c19.129](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c19.129) The formation of the New Testament canon was a crucial event in the history of the Church. It provided a standard of faith and practice that helped to unify the Church and to protect it from the influence of heretical sects. It also ensured that the teachings of Jesus and the apostles would be preserved for future generations. ### [c19.130](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c19.130) MAHAVIRA (500 B.C.) SCALE : 1 : 4,000,000 ### [c19.131](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c19.131) The first of these, the \*Gospel of the Hebrews\*, was used by the Jewish Christians of Palestine, and was probably a version of the Gospel of Matthew, though it contained some traditions not found in our canonical books. The \*Gospel of the Egyptians\* was used by the ascetic sects of Egypt, and was marked by a strong tendency towards mysticism and asceticism. The \*Gospel of Peter\* was used by the Docetists, and taught that Christ did not really suffer, but only appeared to do so. ### [c19.132](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c19.132) These gospels, and others like them, were not accepted by the Church as a whole, and were gradually lost or suppressed. The Church, however, felt the need for a standard collection of writings that would serve as a guide for faith and practice. This led to the formation of the New Testament canon, a process that took several centuries to complete. ### [c19.133](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c19.133) The first step in this process was the collection of the letters of Paul, which were widely circulated among the churches. Then came the four Gospels, which were accepted as the authoritative accounts of the life and teachings of Jesus. The Acts of the Apostles and the other epistles were gradually added, and finally the Book of Revelation. ### [c19.134](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c19.134) By the end of the second century, the core of the New Testament was generally accepted by the Church. The process of canonization was not a formal act of a council, but rather a gradual recognition by the churches of the writings that were most valuable for their life and worship. It was only in the fourth century that the canon was formally closed by the councils of the Church. ### [c19.135](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c19.135) The formation of the New Testament canon was a crucial event in the history of the Church. It provided a standard of faith and practice that helped to unify the Church and to protect it from the influence of heretical sects. It also ensured that the teachings of Jesus and the apostles would be preserved for future generations. ### [c19.136](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c19.136) MAHĀVĪRA'S ITINERARY ### [c19.137](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c19.137) Mahāvīra was thirty years old when with the permission of his elder brother Nandivardhana and other relatives, he renounced the world and with a divine garment (devadussa) left Kundaggāma in the dark of mārga-śīrṣa on the tenth day in winter. Followed by thousands of people, Mahāvīra reached the garden of Nāyasaṇḍavana, which lay in the outskirts of Kundaggāma, to the north-east direction where the renunciation ceremony was performed with great pomp. ### [c19.138](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c19.138) FIRST YEAR ### [c19.139](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c19.139) The same day in the evening Mahāvīra left Nāyasaṇḍa and set out for Kummāragāma. There were two routes leading to Kummīra, one by water and another by land. Mahāvīra preferred the latter and having reached there, stood in meditation. Mahāvīra was caused trouble here by a cowherd who took him to be a thief and wanted to hit him. Next day Mahāvīra proceeded to Kollāka Sannivesa where he broke his fast. From there he proceeded to Morāga Sannivesa and sojourned in a hermitage. Next day Mahāvīra left Morāga Sannivesa and after a period of eight months returned to the same place again. He put up here in a hut, but he had to leave this place very soon. Then Mahāvīra proceeded to Atthiyagāma and sojourned in the shrine of Sūlapāṇi. Here Sūlapāṇi Jakkha is said to have caused manifold trouble to Mahāvīra which he endured patiently and passed first rainy season in Atthiyagāma. ### [c19.140](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c19.140) SECOND YEAR ### [c19.141](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c19.141) From Atthiyagāma Mahāvīra set out for Morāga Sannivesa again where lived an ascetic named Acchandaka. Then Mahāvīra proceeded to Vācāla, which was divided into Uttaravācāla and Dakkhiṇavācāla, and between them flowed the rivers Suvaṇṇakūlā and Ruppakūlā. Mahāvīra was going from Dakkhiṇavācāla to Uttaravācāla when the remaining half¹ of his garment was caught in the thorns on the bank of Suvaṇṇakūlā, and from this time it is said that the Teacher went about naked. Now there were two routes to Uttaravācāla, one passing right through the hermitage named Kanakakhala and another from outside it. The former, which was more difficult, was chosen by Mahāvīra where he was caused much trouble by a poisonous serpent. From here Mahāvīra proceeded to Seyaviya which lay near the above hermitage and where he was received by king Paesi. Then the Teacher crossed the Ganges and reached Surabhipura and from there proceeded to Thūnāka Sannivesa and stood in meditation there Then Mahāvīra reached Rāyagṛha and sojourned in a weaver's shed in Nālandā where he passed second rainy season. Here Gosāla met him and the two of them left for Kollāga ### [c19.142](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c19.142) ¹ The first half was already given to a Brāhmaṇa in the garden Nāyasaṇḍavana before Mahavira left Kummāragāma. ### [c19.143](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c19.143) THIRD YEAR ### [c19.144](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c19.144) From Kollāga Mahāvīra and Gosāla proceeded to Suvannakhalaya, then to Bambhanagāma and then to Campā where the Teacher passed third rainy season. ### [c19.145](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c19.145) FOURTH YEAR ### [c19.146](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c19.146) From Campā Mahāvīra and Gosāla reached Kālāya Sannivesa and thence to Pattakālaya It is stated that Gosāla was insulted at these places for his misbehaviour Then both reached Kumārāya Sannivesa, where Mahāvīra stood in meditation in the garden Camparamanijja Then both travelled to Corāga Sannivesa where they were taken to be spies and were made prisoners From here Mahāvīra and Gosāla proceeded to Pitthicampā where the Teacher passed fourth rainy season ### [c19.147](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c19.147) FIFTH YEAR ### [c19.148](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c19.148) From Pitthicampā Mahāvīra and Gosāla proceeded to Kayangalā Here some ascetics were staying with their families Gosāla is said to have maltreated them and was punished for his misdemeanour Then both reached Sāvatthī and then proceeded to Haledduga. Here there was a big turmeric tree where Mahāvīra stood in meditation and his feet are said to have burnt by fire Then both reached Nangala where Mahāvīra stood in meditation in the Vāsudeva temple. Here again Gosāla was punished for his misdemeanour They then proceeded to Āvattagāma where Mahāvīra stood in meditation in the Baladeva temple Gosāla was taken to task and punished again Then both reached Corāya Sannivesa From there both journeyed to Kalambuka Sannivesa where both were tied by Kālahasti and were beaten ; later on, they were set at liberty by his brother Megha who is said to have seen Mahāvīra in Khattiyakunda Then both proceeded to the country of Lādha where Mahāvīra had to endure various kinds of painful sufferings Then the two of them reached Punnakalasa where some robbers made an attempt on Mahāvīra's life with sword From there both journeyed to the city of Bhaddiya where the Teacher passed fifth rainy season. ### [c19.149](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c19.149) SIXTH YEAR ### [c19.150](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c19.150) From Bhaddiya Mahāvīra and Gosāla proceeded to Kayalisamāgama, then to Jambusanda and then to Tambāya Sannivesa Then they reached Kūviya Sannivesa where they were taken as spies and were taken prisoners, later on, both were released by two sisters named Vijayā and Pragalbhā ### [c19.151](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c19.151) Now Gosāla refused to move in the company of Mahāvīra and said that since he had to bear insult every now and then, he would like to go his own way. So Mahāvīra left for Vesālī and, having reached there, stood in meditation in a blacksmith's shed It is mentioned that the blacksmith, seeing Mahāvīra naked, ran to hit him Then Mahāvīra travelled towards Gāmāya Sannivesa where he was honoured by Vibhelaka Jakkha From here Mahāvīra proceeded to Sālisisayagāma, and was caused trouble by the demoness Katapūtanā Here Gosāla joined Mahāvīra again after six months Finally Mahāvīra visited Bhaddiya, and passed sixth rainy season there ### [c19.152](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c19.152) SEVENTH YEAR ### [c19.153](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c19.153) Then Mahāvīra and Gosāla travelled in the country of Magadha and the Teacher passed seventh rainy season in Ālabhiyā ### [c19.154](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c19.154) EIGHTH YEAR ### [c19.155](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c19.155) From Ālabhiyā both proceeded to Kundāga Sannivesa where Mahāvīra stood in meditation in the temple of Vāsudeva It is mentioned that Gosāla was beaten here for his misbehaviour Then both set out for Maddanagāma and sojourned in the Baladeva temple Then both journeyed to Bahusālagagāma where Mahāvīra was caused trouble by Sālejjā vānamantari From here both proceeded to the capital Lohaggalā where the royal servants took them to be spies of the enemy and tied them Later on, both were set free by Uppala who is said to have arrived there from Atthiyagāma Afterwards both proceeded to Purimatāla where Mahāvīra stood in meditation in the garden of Sagadamuha From there they proceeded to Unnāga and from there journeyed to Gobhūmi At last both reached Rāyagiha and the Teacher passed eighth rainy season here ### [c19.156](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c19.156) NINTH YEAR ### [c19.157](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c19.157) From Rāyagiha Mahāvīra and Gosāla proceeded to Lādha, a non-Aryan country and travelled in Vajjabhūmi and Subbhabhūmi, where Mahāvīra had to undergo all sorts of tortures Sometimes people surrounded him and set dogs upon him uttering 'cu cu' Mahāvīra could not get any shelter here; he passed ninth rainy season in this country ² ### [c19.158](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c19.158) ² At Pākbira in the Manbhum district, a colossal naked figure of Vira under the name of Bhiram is still worshipped by the people (Dist Gaz of Manbhum p 61). ### [c19.159](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c19.159) TENTH YEAR ### [c19.160](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c19.160) From Lādha Mahāvīra and Gosāla journeyed to Siddhatthapura and from there proceeded to Kummagāma. Then both returned to Siddhatthapura. Here Gosāla again severed his connection with Mahāvīra and reached Sāvatthī. Mahāvīra left for Vesālī where the republican king Sankha is said to have saved him from the trouble caused by the town-children. Then Mahāvīra crossed the river Gandai by boat and reached Vāniyagāma and then proceeded to Sāvatthī where the Teacher passed tenth rainy season. ### [c19.161](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c19.161) ELEVENTH YEAR ### [c19.162](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c19.162) From Sāvatthī Mahāvīra left for Sānulatthiyagāma and then proceeded to Daḍhabhūmi, a land of the Mlecchas. From here the Lord proceeded to Peḍhālagāma and stood in meditation in the garden of Polāsa. Mahāvīra is said to have suffered extreme pains in this land. From here the Teacher journeyed to Vāluyagāma, Subhoma, Succhettā, Malaya and finally to Hatthisisa. At all these places Mahāvīra had to suffer extreme torture. Then Mahāvīra set out for Tosalī where he was taken to be a robber and was hit hard. Then the Teacher journeyed to Mosalī, where he was taken to be a robber and was brought to the king's court, but was released. From here Mahāvīra returned to Tosalī where again he was caused trouble and was actually to be hanged but was luckily rescued by Tosalī Kṣatriya. Then Mahāvīra set out for Siddhatthapura from where he proceeded to Vayaggāma. At all these places Mahāvīra is said to have endured pains and tortures for a period of six months. From Vayaggāma the venerable ascetic proceeded to Ālabhiyā and then journeyed to Seyaviyā and then proceeded towards Sāvatthī. Then the Teacher set out for Kosambī, Vānarasī, Rāvagaha, Mihilā and finally passed eleventh rainy seasons in Vesālī. ### [c19.163](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c19.163) TWELFTH YEAR ### [c19.164](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c19.164) From Vasālī the Teacher reached Sumsgumārapura and then proceeded to Bhogapura. Then he left for Nandiggāma and from there journeyed to Mendhiyagāma. Then Mahāvīra proceeded to Kosambī, where he received his alms after a period of four months. From Kosambī Mahāvīra set out for Sumangalgāma, and then he proceeded to Pālayagāma. From here the Teacher reached Campā and passed twelfth rainy season here. ### [c19.165](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c19.165) THIRTEENTH YEAR ### [c19.166](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c19.166) From Campā Mahāvīra reached Jambhiyagāma, and then journeyed to Mendhiyagāma. Then he proceeded to Chammānigāma where a cow-herd is said to have thrust iron nails into his ears. Mahāvīra arrived at Majjhima Pāvā in this condition when the nails were removed from his ears. From here the Teacher travelled towards Jambhiyagāma where on the northern bank of the river Ujjuvāliyā, in the farm of the householder Sāmāga, under a sāla tree, in north-east of the Veyāvatta shrine, after a period of 12 years, 6 months and 15 days, Mahāvīra attained omniscience (kevala) on the bright tenth day of vaiśākha ³ ### [c19.167](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c19.167) ³ Āva. Nu. 458-527, Āva Bha III, Āva. cū pp 268-323, Kalpa. 5, Āca. II 3 Cūl.jā Bhag 15. ### [c19.168](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c19.168) After Mahāvīra attained kevalhood, a samavasaraṇa (religious conference) was held on the bank of the river Ujjuvāliyā, but it is said that the first preaching of Mahāvīra remained unsuccessful. Then after traversing twelve yojanas, Mahāvīra is said to have returned to Majjhima Pāvā where the second samavasaraṇa was convened in the garden of Mahāsena. Here, after a long discussion on various religious and philosophical points, Mahāvīra ordained the eleven learned Brāhmins mentioned already.⁴ ### [c19.169](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c19.169) ⁴ Kalpa. Ti. 5 121, Āva Nir 540 ff. ### [c19.170](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c19.170) Thus we see that after twelve years of severe penance and meditation Mahāvīra attained omniscience at the age of forty two, and lived thereafter for thirty years to preach his religion. According to the Kalpasūtra,⁵ since Mahāvīra renounced the life of a householder, he spent forty two rainy seasons at the following places. He stayed the first rainy season in Atthiyaggāma, three rainy seasons in Campā and Pitthicampā, and eight in Vasālī and Vāniyagāma. These twelve rainy seasons Mahāvīra passed during his ascetic life before he attained omniscience. Then during the thirty years of his career as a Teacher, Mahāvīra spent four rainy seasons in Vesālī and Vāniyagāma, fourteen in Rāyagaha and Nālandā, six in Mithilā, two in Bhaddiya, one in Ālabhiyā, one in Paṇiyabhūmi one in Sāvatthī and one in the town of Pāvā in the office of the survey-ministers of king Hatthivāla which was the last rainy season of the Teacher. ### [c19.171](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c19.171) ⁵ 123, ### [c19.172](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c19.172) Thus the Kalpasūtra's authority on the itinerary of Mahāvīra is ancient and fairly reliable. It is evident from the Kalpasūtra that the ground which Mahāvīra covered during his ascetic life is roughly by Bihar, a part of northern-western Bengal and a part of eastern U.P. The tradition which mentions his visit to Vītibhaya, which according to the Jain tradition was the capital of Sindhu Sovīra, to preach to king Uddāyana, is of very doubtful veracity. The earliest reference to this visit is found in the Bhagavatī and later on certain Cūrṇis perpetuate the tradition. It is quite possible that in later times, when Jainism spread to Western India, the Jains did come in contact with the people of Sindhu Sovīra, and to prove that their connection with that part of the country was not new, the story of Mahāvīra's visit seems to have originated. In this connection it is interesting to note that Buddhism, when it spread to the Punjab and beyond, produced a literature which expressly mentions Buddha visiting those far off lands, which as a matter of fact seems to be quite absurd and analogous process, though on much lesser scale is evident in the Jain scriptures Jainism, however, never spread outsides the confines of India, neither there is proof that it gained a foot-hold in the Punjab at any time Hence Jainism had very few opportunities to sanctify the places in the Punjab with the presence of its \*Tīrthaṅkaras\*. ### [c19.173](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c19.173) GEOGRAPHICAL LEXICON ### [c19.174](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c19.174) In order to arrange systematically the mass of geographical material in the Jain canons and their commentaries, we have felt it advisable to place it in alphabetical order, together with their descriptions as given in the Jain texts, their places of references and identification and location wherever possible. ### [c19.175](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c19.175) I ### [c19.176](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c19.176) Abbuya\*—a mountain ### [c19.177](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c19.177) Abbuya is mentioned with Pabhāsa where \*saṅkhaḍi\* (a feast) was celebrated.¹ ### [c19.178](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c19.178) ¹ \*Brh Bhā\*, 1 3150 ### [c19.179](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c19.179) Abbuya is identical with Mount Abu in the Sirohi State of Rajputana. It is one of the five sacred hills of the Jains, others being Satruñjaya, Samet Sikhar, Girnar and Candragiri.² ### [c19.180](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c19.180) ² Dey, G D , p 10 ### [c19.181](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c19.181) Abhīra\*—a country ### [c19.182](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c19.182) This country was visited by Ajja Samīya³ and Vairasāmi⁴ ### [c19.183](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c19.183) ³ \*Ava. Ṭī\*, p 514a , unless otherwise stated such references should be taken to the commentary of Malayagiri ### [c19.184](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c19.184) ⁴ \*Ava. Cū\*, p. 397. ### [c19.185](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c19.185) Abhīra was situated in Daksiṇāpatha and Terā (Tagarā) was a beautiful city of this country.⁵ ### [c19.186](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c19.186) ⁵ \*Brhatkathakośa\* 138 39f, 56 32 For the race of the Abhīras see Bhandarkar \*Vaiṣṇavism, Śaivism, etc.\*, p 37. ### [c19.187](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c19.187) Acalaggāma\*—city ### [c19.188](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c19.188) Acalaggāma was situated in Magadha.⁶ A royal road (\*rāyapaha\*) is mentioned in Ayalaggāma.⁷ Its exact situation is not known. ### [c19.189](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c19.189) ⁶ \*Uttarā. Ṭī\*, 18, p. 243 , also cf \*Marana\* 449, p. 126a ### [c19.190](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c19.190) ⁷ \*Vasu\*, p 197. ### [c19.191](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c19.191) Acalapura\*—a town (\*ahiṭṭhāna\*) ### [c19.192](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c19.192) Acalapura was situated in Abhīra. The rivers Kanhā and Benna flowed near the town, and between them was the Island Bambhadiva, a habitat of five hundred tāvasas.⁸ ### [c19.193](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c19.193) ⁸ \*Piṇḍa Nir\*, 503 , \*Ava. Ṭī\*, p. 514a; \*Nandi\*, p. 50a. ### [c19.194](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c19.194) It is identified with modern Ellichpur in Berar. ### [c19.195](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c19.195) \*Acchā—a kingdom\* ### [c19.196](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c19.196) Acchā is included among the twenty five and a half Āryan countries and the sixteen \*Janapadas\*; Varaṇa or Varunā was its capital. ### [c19.197](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c19.197) Acchā may be identified with the region round Bulandshahar in United Provinces (see Varaṇā). ### [c19.198](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c19.198) \*Adamba? (Ambaḍa)—a country\* ### [c19.199](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c19.199) Ambaḍa is mentioned along with Bahali, Illā, Jonaga, Pallava and Suvaṇṇabhūmi. Usabha, the first \*Tīrthankara\*, is said to have travelled these countries.⁹ ### [c19.200](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c19.200) ⁹ Āca. Nī., 336. ### [c19.201](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c19.201) (See infra Ambaḍa). _First 200 of 2,486 passages. 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