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Life in Ancient India as Depicted in the Jain Canons, with Commentaries: An Administrative, Economic, Social and Geographical Survey c5.s1: Pārśvanātha—The Historical Personality

Life in Ancient India as Depicted in the Jain Canons, with Commentaries: An Administrative, Economic, Social and Geographical Survey c5.s1

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Pārśvanātha—The Historical Personality

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Pāsa or Pārsvanātha, who was the immediate predecessor of Mahāvīra, is said to have flourished some 250 years before the advent of the latter. He was born in Vārānasi (Benares) and was the son of the king Asasena by his queen Vāmā. He lived thirty years as a lay man, and after leading a life of an ascetic for seventy years, attained salvation at the mountain Sammeya³. Pārsvanātha is said to have visited a number of cities, the prominent among which were Ahicchatta⁴, Āmalakappā,⁵ Sāvatthi, Hatthināpura, Kampillapura, Sāgeya,⁶ Rāyagiha and Kosambi.⁷ He was known as Purisādāniya (purisājāniya in Pali)⁸ or the distinguished man⁹.

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³ Kalpa Sū 6 149 169

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⁴ Ācā Nu 335

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⁵ Nāyā II p 222

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⁶ ibid, p 229

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⁷ ibid, p 230

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⁸ Purisājāneya is mentioned in the Anguttara I 290, II, 115.

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⁹ Kalpa Sū 6 149 also see Schubring, Die Lehre Der Jainas p 24.

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Pārśva and his disciples (*pāsāvaccijja*) are referred to in various Jain Canons. We learn from the *Ācārāṅga*¹⁰ that the parents of Mahāvīra followed the faith of Pārśva and were the adherents of the *Samaṇas*. The *Āvaśyaka Cūrṇi* mentions several ascetics of the Pārśva sect, who were present during the course of Mahāvīra’s wanderings as an ascetic. Uppala was a *pāsāvaccijja*, who after giving up the monastic order had entered the house-holder’s life (*pacchākaḍa*) and followed the profession of a fortune-teller (*nemitta*) in Atthiyagāma.¹¹ His two sisters named Somā and Jayantī had joined the order of Pārśva but being unable to continue the rigid ascetic life of his order they became *Parvrājikās* of the Brahmanic order. Later on, when Mahāvīra and Gosāla got into trouble in Corāya Sannivesa, they came to their rescue.¹² Then we meet thera Municanda, a follower of Pārśva, who dwelt in a potter’s shop in Kumārāya Sannivesa in the company of his disciples. When questioned by Gosāla, Municanda replied that they were *Samaṇa Nigganthas*. Gosāla asked as to how they could be called *Nigganthas* since they were possessed of so many personal assets, and he threatened to burn their place of residence (*padissaya*). Gosāla approached Mahāvīra and narrated this incident to him whereupon the latter remarked that these ascetics were the followers of Pārśva and he could do no harm to them.

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¹⁰ II 3 401, p 389

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¹¹ p 273.

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These ascetics indulged in certain activities which according to the principles of Mahāvīra constituted preliminary sin (*sārambha*); they put on clothes (*sapariggaha*) and also practised *Jiṇakappa* (adopting the standard of *Jina*) towards the end of their life. We are told that thera Municanda placed his disciple at the head of the *gaccha* and went to practise *Jiṇakappa* outside the town. Good feeling towards all beings (*satta-bhāvanā*) and five kinds of meditations (*bhāvanā*) are prescribed for the ascetic who wanted to practise *Jiṇakappa*. The five meditations are penance (*tava*), fearlessness (*satta*), study of scriptures (*sutta*), concentration (*egatta*) and spiritual strength (*bala*) which should be practised inside and outside the monastery (*uvasaya*), a square road (*caukka*), a solitary house (*sunnaghara*) or in a cemetery.¹³ Then we hear of Vijayā and Pagabbhā, the two female disciples of Pārśva (*pāsantevāsiniō*), who saved Mahāvīra and Gosāla in Kūviya Sannivesa.¹⁴

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¹³ Āva cū., pp 285, 291, cf. also Brh. Bhā. 1. 1328-57.

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¹⁴ Āva cū., p. 291

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The *Bhagavatī*¹⁵ records the discussion that took place between Mahāvīra and the samaṇa Gāṅgeya, a follower of Pārśva, in Vāṇiyagāma. Gāṅgeya gave up the *Caujjāmadhamma* (the doctrine of the four-fold restraint) and embraced the *Pañcamahavvaya* (the five greater vows) of Mahāvīra. Kālāsavesiyaputta was another follower of Pārśva who became a follower of Mahāvīra.¹⁶ Then the *Nāyādhammakahā* refers to Puṇḍarīya who plucked out his hair and accepted the four vows.¹⁷ The city of Tuṅgiyā is stated to have been the centre of the theras, the followers of Pārśva, who moved in a congregation of five hundred monks. It is said that the lay adherents of the town went to attend to their religious sermons and were highly delighted. The names of the theras Kāliyaputta, Mehila, Ānandarakkhiya and Kāsava are particularly mentioned here.¹⁸ Further, the Nāyādhammakahā¹⁹ and the Niryāvaliyāo²⁰ refer to a number of lay women who joined the order of Pārśva. We hear of the renunciation ceremony of the old maiden (vaddakumārī), Kālī, who joined the ascetic order of Pārśva and was entrusted to Pupphacūlā, the head of the nuns.²¹

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¹ p 286

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¹⁵ 9 32

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¹⁶ ibid., I 9

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¹⁷ 19, p 218.

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¹⁸ Bhag 2. 5.

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¹⁹ II 10.

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²⁰ 4

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²¹ Nāyā II 1, p 222 f.

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Further, the Sūyagaḍaṅga²² mentions Udaya Peḍhālaputta, a Nigaṇtha follower of Pārśva of the Meyajja (Skr Medārya) gotta. There were religious discussions between him and Goyama Indabhūi, after which the latter took him to Mahāvīra, where he gave up the doctrine of four restraints and took up the five great vows, as ordained by the Teacher. The Rāyapaseniya²³ refers to a young monk (kumārasamaṇa)²⁴ named Kesī, who was a follower of Pārśva and knew fourteen Pūrvas. Once he visited the town of Sāvatthī in a congregation of five hundred monks. The charioteer Citta attended his religious sermons and invited him to Seyaviyā. In course of time, Kesī visited Seyaviyā where a discussion took place between him and king Paesī, and the latter being convinced of his opponent's doctrine became an adherent of the Samanas. Kesī is also referred to in the Uttarādhyayana Sūtra where an important historical meeting is recorded to have taken place between him and Goyama, the representatives of the two branches of the Jain Church, in Sāvatthī. In this council many important questions were discussed and finally Kesī accepted the five-fold vows preached by Mahāvīra.²⁵

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²² II 7.

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²³ Sū 147 f.

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²⁴ Prof Bagchi refers to the Sūtra of Pāṇini (II 1 70) "Kumāraḥ Śramaṇādibhiḥ" pointing out that the author might have had the followers of Pārśva in view, The Historical beginning of Jainism, p. 74, Sir Asutosh Mookerjee Silver Jubilee, Vol III

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²⁵ 23

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It must be mentioned that the credit of proving the existence of the Nigaṇthas before Nātaputta Mahāvīra on the strength of references in Pali literature belongs to Professor Jacobi.²⁶ It is stated in the Sāmaññaphala sutta of the Dīgha Nikāya that a Nigaṇtha is restrained with a four-fold restraint (cātuyāma-samvara). 'He is restrained as regards all water, restrained as regards all evil, all evil has he washed away, and he lives suffused with the sense of evil held at bay.'²⁷ Because of this four-fold restraint, he is called a *Nigantha* (free from bonds), *gatatta* (one whose heart has been in the attainment of his aim), *yatatta* (one whose heart is under command) and *thitatta* (one whose heart is fixed). The Pali texts contain the names of several disciples of Nātaputta, who are said to have entered into discussion with Buddha and at the end become his followers. Vappa, a Sākyan king and an uncle of Buddha, was a disciple of the *Niganthas*, who, convinced of the superiority of Buddha’s teachings, became his follower.²⁸ Similarly, could be cited the names of Asibandhakaputta,²⁹ Abhayarājakumāra,³⁰ Siha,³¹ Upāli,³² Dighatapassi,³³ Saccaka,³⁴ Sirigutta³⁵ and the women disciples such as Saccā, Lolā, Avavādakā, Patācarā³⁶ and others. The Devadaha Sutta in the *Majjhima Nikāya* contains a detailed analysis and criticism, attributed to Buddha, of the beliefs and teachings of the *Nāganthas*³⁷

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²⁶ See Jain Sūtras, Vol xlv, pp xiv-xxi, cf also Prof P C Bagchi op cit, pp 76 f

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²⁷ Cf the corresponding four-fold restraint taught by Buddha which consisted of ouser-ving the four precepts against injury stealing unchastity and lying Dīgha, III, p 181,

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²⁸ Anguttara, II, p 196 f, III, p 199

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²⁹ Samyutta, IV 317 ff

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³⁰ Majjhima, I, Abhayarājakumāra Sutta.

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³¹ Mahāvagga, VI, 31, Anguttara, IV, 180 ff

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³² ibid

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³³ ibid., Cūlasaccaka and Mahāsaccaka Sutta.

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³⁴ Dhammapada A, I, pp. 434 ff

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³⁵ Jātaka, III, I

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³⁶ Also cf Anguttara, I 205 f where the *Niganthas* are condemned in ten respects; Dhammapada A, III, pp 200 f See also Chapter on Buddha and Niganthas, B C Law, Historical Gleanings

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³⁷ Cf the Veda should not be recited in a village where a Cāndāla lives (Āpastamba I 3 9. 15); his ears shall be filled with (molten) tin or lac, if he listens intentionally to (a recitation) of the Veda, his tongue shall be cut out if he recites Vedic texts, his body shall be split in twain if he remembers them (Gautama XII 4 6), also cf Mātanga Jātaka (No 497., IV, p 376 where the daughter of a merchant washes her eyes with perfumed water after seeing a Mātanga

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These literary evidences in Jain and Buddhist texts presuppose the existence of a *Nigantha* order founded by Pārśvanātha before the advent of Mahāvīra and there is much to be said in favour of the Jain tradition that Mahāvīra was no more than a reformer of an older *Nigantha* order.

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