[Pramāṇa](https://indike.org/pramana/) › [Studies](https://indike.org/pramana/ins) › [Polity, law and society](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity) › [Life in Ancient India as Depicted in the Jain Canons, with Commentaries: An Administrative, Economic, Social and Geographical Survey](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947) › c8 # Life in Ancient India as Depicted in the Jain Canons, with Commentaries: An Administrative, Economic, Social and Geographical Survey c8: Chapter IV: Military Organisation Life in Ancient India as Depicted in the Jain Canons, with Commentaries: An Administrative, Economic, Social and Geographical Survey c8 - **Language:** English ## Contents - [c8.t1 Chariots](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c8.t1) — 5 parts - [c8.t2 Elephants](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c8.t2) — 22 parts - [c8.t3 Cavalry](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c8.t3) — 21 parts - [c8.t4 Infantry](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c8.t4) — 5 parts - [c8.s1 Ethics of War](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c8.s1) — 1 part - [c8.s2 Warfare](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c8.s2) — 16 parts - [c8.s3 Causes of War](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c8.s3) — 14 parts - [c8.s4 Weapons](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c8.s4) — 38 parts ### Chapter IV: Military Organisation ### [c8.2](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c8.2) THE FOUR-FOLD ARMY ### [c8.3](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c8.3) As wars and frontier troubles were very common in those days, the state had necessarily to keep and maintain a well-equipped and organised military force always at its command. The four-fold army constituting chariots (\*raha\*), elephants (\*gaya\*), cavalry (\*haya\*) and infantry (\*pāyatta\*)¹ played an important part in warfare in ancient India. ### [c8.4](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c8.4) ¹ \*Uttarā Sū.\* 18 2 ### Chariots ### [c8.t1.1](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c8.t1.1) A chariot was a very important means of conveyance in olden days. Unfortunately, no details as to its construction are given in Jain literature. We are told that a chariot was equipped with umbrella, standards, bells, flags, ornamental arches (\*torana\*), a musical instrument (\*nandighosa\*) and with a net of small bells; it was made of \*tinisa\* wood growing in the Himālaya, decorated with many patterns and inlaid with gold. Its spokes and axles (\*dhurā\*) were firm and its felly (\*nemi\*) was of iron. Excellent horses were yoked to it and it was provided with an accomplished charioteer. It was furnished with quivers each containing hundred arrows, armours, helmets, bows, and other weapons.² ### [c8.t1.2](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c8.t1.2) ² \*Ovā sū\*, 31, p 132, \*Ava cū\*, p 188, also see \*Rāmāyaṇa\*, III, 22 13 ff, \*Mahābhārata\*, V, 94. 18 ff. ### [c8.t1.3](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c8.t1.3) Two varieties of chariots are mentioned, namely, \*yānaratha\* and \*sangrāmaratha\*. The former was an ordinary chariot whereas the latter had a wooden seat looking like a sedan-chair (\*phalaka\*).³ The king's chariot's bore special names. For instance, the chariot of Pajjoya was called \*Aggibhīru\* (fire-proof) and was considered one of the four jewels.⁴ ### [c8.t1.4](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c8.t1.4) ³ \*Anu. Tī\*, p 146 In the Kautilya's \*Arthaśāstra\* (p 156) there are mentioned no less than seven different sizes of chariots There are also mentioned six varieties of chariots for different purpose. The \*devaratha\* was the chariot for the idols, the \*pustaratha\* was the festal chariot, the \*sangrāmika\* the war chariot, the \*pariyānika\* that was used ordinarily for travelling. There was another class of war-chariots called the \*starapurābhyāmka\*. Then there was the \*venayika\* of chariot used in the period of training. ### [c8.t1.5](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c8.t1.5) ⁴ \*Ava cū\*, II, p 160. ### Elephants ### [c8.t2.1](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c8.t2.1) The elephant had an honourable place in the army and on other royal occasions. The elephant was considered so important in the Mauryan period that the killing of an elephant was visited even with capital punishment.⁵ The \*Uttarādhyayana\* refers to an elephant of sixty years (satthihāyana),⁶ which shows that it was a long-lived animal. The Thāṇāṅga mentions four varieties of elephants, viz., bhadda, manda, miya and saṅkinna. They are classified according to their seasonal uses, physical strength, sharp or slow intelligence and their ability to lead attacks, etc.⁷ The kings were very fond of elephants; and the state-elephants bore special names. We hear of the elephant Secanaka over which a great battle was fought between Kūṇika and Halla and Vihalla. It is said that this elephant was born in a hermitage and used to water the groves with its trunk in the company of the ascetic princes and hence its appellation Secanaka (Sprinkler). When this elephant grew up, it killed the leader of the herd and destroyed the hermitage. The ascetics were angry with the elephant and handed it over to king Seniya of Rāyagiha.⁸ Later on, it is said that once Secanaka went to a river where he was caught by a crocodile. A merchant's son rescued it whereupon Seṇiya was so much pleased with him that he gave him his daughter in marriage.⁹ Another battle is recorded which took place between Nami and Caṇḍajasa over an elephant.¹⁰ The Bhagavatī refers to two other elephants of Kūṇika, viz., Udāyin and Bhuṭānanda.¹¹ Nalagiri was another elephant which belonged to Pajjoya and was considered one of his four precious possessions.¹² Bhadravatī belonged to Udayana, who successfully carried off Vāsavadattā on its back from Ujjenī to Kosambī.¹³ Vijaya Gandhahatthi¹⁴ was an elephant of Kaṇha Vāsudeva.¹⁵ ### [c8.t2.2](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c8.t2.2) ⁵ \*Arthaśāstra\*, p 49, ### [c8.t2.3](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c8.t2.3) ⁶ 11 18, also cf Majjhima, I, p 229, Rāmāyaṇa, II, 67 20, Mahābhārata, II, 83. 24 ### [c8.t2.4](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c8.t2.4) ⁷ For their characteristics, see 4 281, also see Nāyā, 1, p 39, also cf Hastilakṣaṇam (66) a chapter in the Bṛhat Saṃhitā, Arthaśāstra, pp 151 f. The Sammoha Vinodanī (p 397) mentions ten species of elephants kālāvaka, gaṅgeyya, paṇḍara, tamba, piṅgala, gandha, maṅgala, hema, uposatha and chaddanta See also Rāmāyaṇa, I, 6. 25. ### [c8.t2.5](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c8.t2.5) ⁸ Āva cū, II, p 170 f ### [c8.t2.6](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c8.t2.6) ⁹ Ibid, 468. ### [c8.t2.7](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c8.t2.7) ¹⁰ Uttarā, Ṭī 9 p 140 f. ### [c8.t2.8](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c8.t2.8) ¹¹ 7. 9 ### [c8.t2.9](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c8.t2.9) ¹² Āva. cū, II, p. 160 ### [c8.t2.10](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c8.t2.10) ¹³ Ibid, pp 161 f. ### [c8.t2.11](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c8.t2.11) ¹⁴ A gandhahastin or ‘the scent elephant’ was the best type of elephant. It was the leader of its herd and it survived even if fallen in a cave. An ācarya is compared with a gandhahastin (Brh. Bhā, 1. 2010) ### [c8.t2.12](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c8.t2.12) ¹⁵ Nāyā., 5, p. 70. ### [c8.t2.13](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c8.t2.13) The elephants were equipped with armours, cruppers, bells, neck-ornament (gevejja), head-piece (uttarakaṇcujja), flags, standards, garlands, weapons and other ornaments.¹⁶ ### [c8.t2.14](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c8.t2.14) ¹⁶ Vivā., 2, p 13, Ovā, 30, p. 117, 31, p. 132. Also see Rāmāyaṇa, I, 53. 18. ### [c8.t2.15](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c8.t2.15) There were special trainers (hatthidamaga) of elephants.¹⁷ king Udayana was an adept in the art of winning over elephants by his music.¹⁸ The mahauts (hatthivāua: miṇtha) were armed with hooks¹⁹ (aṅkusa); housing (uccūla mod. jhūl) is mentioned.²⁰ The elephants were tied to a post (ālāṇa) and their feet were secured with a rope.²¹ The elephant stables (jaḍḍasālā) are referred to.²² The wooden seat on the back of the elephant was known as gilli²³ the equivalent of modern ambārī. ### [c8.t2.16](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c8.t2.16) ¹⁷ Nisi. cū, 8, p. 522. ### [c8.t2.17](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c8.t2.17) ¹⁸ Āva. cū, II, p. 161. ### [c8.t2.18](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c8.t2.18) ¹⁹ Das sū, 2. 10, Uttarā. Ṭī., 4, p. 85. ### [c8.t2.19](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c8.t2.19) ²⁰ Ovā., 30, p. 117. ### [c8.t2.20](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c8.t2.20) ²¹ Uttarā. Ṭī., 4, p. 85, ### [c8.t2.21](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c8.t2.21) ²² Vya. Bhā., 10. 484, ### [c8.t2.22](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c8.t2.22) ²³ Rāya. sū., 3, ### Cavalry ### [c8.t3.1](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c8.t3.1) The third constituent of the four-fold army was the cavalry. The great value of the horses at the time of Kautilya lay in their quick movement and they were regarded as specially useful for guarding advanced positions, for protecting the treasury and commissariat, for cutting off the enemy’s supply, for delivering attacks against the enemy’s forces and for pursuing a retreating foe.²⁴ ### [c8.t3.2](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c8.t3.2) ²⁴ Arthaśāstra, p 398 f. ### [c8.t3.3](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c8.t3.3) Three varieties of horses are mentioned, viz., aśva, aśvatara, ghotaka.²⁵ An aśva was a well-bred horse from Pakkhalī (vālhīka according to Haribhadra) ; it was a clean animal²⁶ ; an aśvatara or a mule was born of a different species other than its own ; such mules came from Dilavāliya ; the ill-bred horses were known as ākīrṇa.²⁷ Kanthaka was another variety of horses found in Kamboja whom no noise frightened and who exceeded all other horses in speed.²⁸ The Thaṇāṅga mentions four varieties of kanthaka.²⁹ The mares which foaled horses every year,³⁰ were known as ṭhāiṇī (ṭhāṇī in Marāṭhi.) ### [c8.t3.4](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c8.t3.4) ²⁵ Das cū, 6, p 213 ### [c8.t3.5](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c8.t3.5) ²⁶ Jambu, 2, p. 110, f , also Rāmāyaṇa, I, 6 22. ### [c8.t3.6](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c8.t3.6) ²⁷ Uttarā sū, 11 16, Thā, 4. 327, for eight defects of a horse see Khaluṅka Sutta, Anguttara, IV, p 190 f. ### [c8.t3.7](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c8.t3.7) ²⁸ Uttarā sū, 11. 16 and the com. ### [c8.t3.8](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c8.t3.8) ²⁹ Com 4 327. Kanthaku is also mentioned in the Dhammapada A., I, p. 185. ### [c8.t3.9](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c8.t3.9) ³⁰ Brh Bha, 3 3059 f ### [c8.t3.10](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c8.t3.10) The horses were equipped with armour and horse-carpet ; the crests imparted them a grim look and their waist was decorated with small mirrors (ṭhāsaga). The saddle of the horse was known as thillī. The horsemen were armed with weapons.³¹ ### [c8.t3.11](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c8.t3.11) ³¹ Vuā, 2, p 13, Ovā 31, p 132 ### [c8.t3.12](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c8.t3.12) Horses were trained. Haribhadra refers to the training of Bahalī horses.³² Vāhyālī was the place for training horses.³³ The horse-trainers (assamaddaya) are mentioned; they trained the horses by using different kinds of muzzles for mouth, ears, nose, hair, hoofs and thighs, by bit of a bridle (khalīṇa), tying with a rope to the post (ahilāṇa), by saddling (paḍiyāṇa), brandishing (aṅkaṇa), caning (vittappahāra), beating with sticks (layappahāra), whips (kasa), lashes (chiva),³⁴ goad and thongs (toṭajuṭṭa).³⁵ ### [c8.t3.13](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c8.t3.13) ³² Ava Ti, p 261, also Rāya Sū, 161. ### [c8.t3.14](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c8.t3.14) ³³ Uttarā Ṭī, 9, p 141. ### [c8.t3.15](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c8.t3.15) ³⁴ Nāyā., 17, p 205, also cf Majjhima, I, p. 446. ### [c8.t3.16](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c8.t3.16) ³⁵ Uttarā, 19 56 ### [c8.t3.17](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c8.t3.17) Riding (assavāhaṇyā) was a luxury.³⁶ Jumping (laṅghaṇa), circular movement (vaggaṇa), gallop (dhoraṇa) and other forms of riding are mentioned.³⁷ Horses were kept in the stables (assasālā).³⁸ Meadow-grass (javasa) and husk (tusa) were given as fodder to horses.³⁹ ### [c8.t3.18](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c8.t3.18) ³⁶ Ibid, Ṭī, 5, p. 103. ### [c8.t3.19](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c8.t3.19) ³⁷ Ovā sū, 31, p. 132 ; cf. Arthaśāstra (p 148) where these terms are explained ### [c8.t3.20](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c8.t3.20) ³⁸ Vya Bhā., 10, 484. ### [c8.t3.21](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c8.t3.21) ³⁹ Uttarā. Ṭī., 4, p. 96. ### Infantry ### [c8.t4.1](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c8.t4.1) The foot-soldier (\*pāyatta\*) constituted the main portion of the army. Kauṭilya classifies them as regulars (\*maula\*), hired soldiers (\*bhṛta\*), those supplied by fighting corporations (\*śreṇī\*), those recruited from the enemies' country, those recruited from the country of an ally, and lastly, those recruited from amongst wild tribes.⁴⁰ ### [c8.t4.2](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c8.t4.2) ⁴⁰ \*Arthaśāstra\*, p 156 ⁴¹ \*Ovā\*, 31, p 132. ⁴² \*Vivā\*, 2, p. 13. ⁴³ \*Ovā sū.\*, 29 ⁴⁴ \*Niryā.\* 1. ⁴⁵ \*Nāyā\*, 8, p 97 ff A \*dūta\* ought not to be slain (\*Arthaśāstra\*, p. 30) ; for qualifications of a \*dūta\*, see Manu (VII, 64 f). ⁴⁶ 3, p 93 The \*Arthaśāstra\* (p 309) refers to three kinds of warfare, \*viz\*., open, treacherous and silent (\*i.e.\*, killing an enemy by employing spies when there is no talk of battle at all) ; also see p. 156. ⁴⁷ \*cf. Nāyā\*, 8, p. 111 ; 16, p. ### [c8.t4.3](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c8.t4.3) The foot-soldiers carried various weapons noticeable among them being swords, javelins, spears and bows.⁴¹ They were clad in mail-coats in order to protect themselves from the attacks of the sharp arrows and other missiles (\*sannaddhabaddhavammīyakavaya\*).⁴² ### [c8.t4.4](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c8.t4.4) The whole army administration was under the control of the commander-in-chief (\*balavāuya\*) also known as \*senāvai\*.⁴³ It was his duty to attend to the training and efficient organisation of the army and the enforcement of proper discipline among the soldiers. ### [c8.t4.5](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c8.t4.5) II ### Ethics of War ### [c8.s1.1](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c8.s1.1) The ancients realised the terrible loss in men and money to both parties in war, and hence they tried to avoid war in general. They first tried the four diplomatic means, \*viz\*, \*sāma\*, \*dāma\*, \*daṇḍa\* and \*bheda\*, failing which they had to declare war. Before the two parties actually entered into the war, a \*dūta\* or a courier, who conveyed the royal proclamation to the opposite party, was deputed with the message. We learn that before entering into war with Ceḍaga, Kūṇiya sent his \*dūta\* to his opponent thrice; finally giving him orders to place his left foot on the foot-stool of the enemy (in a spirit of defiance) and deliver him the letter keeping it on the edge of the spear.⁴⁴ Then the king Paḍibuddhi and his five fellow-kings deputed their envoys to king Kumbhaga asking him either to give his daughter in marriage or prepare for war.⁴⁵ ### Warfare ### [c8.s2.1](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c8.s2.1) The art of warfare together with its various tactics, stratagems and practices, was well known in those days. The \*Uttarādhyayana cūrṇi\* mentions vehicles, chariots, horses, elephants, foot-soldiers, shields (\*āvaraṇa\*), weapons, tact (\*kusalatta\*), diplomacy, competency, perseverance, good physique and health as necessary for carrying on a war.⁴⁶ Camps (\*khaṇḍhāvāraṇivesa\*) were an important conjunct of warfare.⁴⁷ ### [c8.s2.2](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c8.s2.2) ¹⁹⁰ Also see \*Mahābhārata\*, V, 152. ### [c8.s2.3](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c8.s2.3) A distinction is made between \*juddha\* and \*sangāma\*. In the former there was no order in fighting, while in the latter battle formations were used (\*vūha\*).⁴⁸ The \*sagadavūha\* (waggon array) and \*garudavūha\* (eagle array) are mentioned in the \*Niryavaliyā\*. The army of Cedaga formed the former while that of Kūṇiya the latter.⁴⁹ The \*cakka\*, \*daṇḍa\* and \*sūci\* \*vūhas\* are also mentioned.⁵⁰ Two types of battles are mentioned: (1) battles in which war-engines were employed (\*mahāsilākantaka\*),⁵¹ (2) battles in which chariots and pestles were used (\*rahamusala\*). It is said that in these battles a huge number of people were killed.⁵² ### [c8.s2.4](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c8.s2.4) ⁴⁸ Jambu, Ṭī 2, 24. ### [c8.s2.5](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c8.s2.5) ⁴⁹ I, p 28. Kautilya mentions details of various battle arrays which also include \*garuda\* and \*sakaṭa\* \*vyūhas\*. It is called an eagle-like array when, having formed the wings, the front is made to bulge out, when it consists of two lines in front and has its wings arranged as in the staff-like array, it is called a cart like array (\*Arthaśāstra\*, pp 403 f; also see \*Manu\*, VII, 187 f, \*Mahābhā\*, VI, 56, 75, also Date, \*The Art of War in Ancient India\*, p. 72 ff). ### [c8.s2.6](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c8.s2.6) ⁵⁰ Ovā., 40, p 186, \*Panha\*., 3, p 44 ### [c8.s2.7](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c8.s2.7) ⁵¹ According to Monier William's \*Sanskrit Dictionary\*, \*Mahāsilā\* is a kind of weapon (a \*śataghni\* with iron nails) ### [c8.s2.8](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c8.s2.8) ⁵² According to Abhayadeva, however, \*Mahāsilākantaka\* is so called because in this battle even a thorn (\*kaṇṭaka\*) acted like a big stone (\*mahāsilā\*), \*Rahamusala\* was so called because a single chariot equipped with a mace (\*musala\*) moved about which effected a great execution of men (Bhag, 7 9). Also see \*Harivamsa\*, II, 42 21, II. 39. 75. ### [c8.s2.9](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c8.s2.9) Siege-warfare was the usual practice. The aggressive king would besiege the neighbour's state and challenge him either to surrender or to prepare for the battle. Sometimes the seige continued for a considerable time. Kūṇika is said to have besieged the city of Vesāli for a long period.⁵³ King Sālivāhana used to lay siege to Bharuyakaccha every year.⁵⁴ It is stated that when Jiyasattu and other kings besieged Mihilā, king Kumbhaga closed the city gates and the citizens could not move out.⁵⁵ It is for this reason that the cities of those days were strongly fortified. The fortifications consisted of walls (\*pākāra\*), battlements (\*gopura\*), towers (\*aṭṭālaga\*), moats and trenches (\*ussālaga\*, com. \*khādikā\*) and \*sayagghi\* for defending a town.⁵⁶ ### [c8.s2.10](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c8.s2.10) ⁵³ \*Āta cū\*., II, p 173. ### [c8.s2.11](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c8.s2.11) ⁵⁴ Ibid, p 200 f. ### [c8.s2.12](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c8.s2.12) ⁵⁵ \*Nāyā\*., 8, p. 112. ### [c8.s2.13](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c8.s2.13) ⁵⁶ \*Uttarā\*., 9, 18, \*Ovā\*., 1, p. 5. ### [c8.s2.14](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c8.s2.14) Strategy and diplomacy played an important part in this type of warfare. Men of shrewd commonsense and profound wisdom brought into play their endless manoeuvres and novel tactics to cause the other party to surrender. We are told as to how Abhayakumāra, by a clever subterfuge which consisted of burying the counterfeit coins in the enemy's camp, created suspicion in the mind of Pajjota about the fidelity of his soldiers and thus foiled his attack on Rāyagaha.⁵⁷ A regular system of espionage was another feature of siege-warfare. Spies were regularly employed to watch the activities of the enemy. They joined the enemy's people and found out their secrets. We have seen how Kūnika employed hermit Kūlavālaya to cause the citizens of Vesāli to destroy the mound and secured victory over Cedaga.⁵⁸ ### [c8.s2.15](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c8.s2.15) ⁵⁷ \*Āva cū\*., II, p. 159. ### [c8.s2.16](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c8.s2.16) ⁵⁸ Ibid., p 174. ### Causes of War ### [c8.s3.1](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c8.s3.1) The causes of war in ancient India could be classified under the following heads :—(1) It was the age of chivalry, and what worthier cause could there be than rescuing a damsel in distress or a maiden whom the knight-errant loved but who was to be married to others. Any insult to the women, however, had also to be avenged and this led to wars. The Paṇhavāgaraṇa mentions Sītā,⁵⁹ Dovai,⁶⁰ Ruppiṇī,⁶¹ Paumāvaī, Tārā,⁶² Kāñcanā,⁶³ Rattasubhaddā,⁶⁴ Ahinnikā, Suvaṇṇaguliyā,⁶⁵ Kinnarī, Surūpā, Vijjumai and Rohiṇī,⁶⁶ who were the causes of wars. Similar wars took place for Mallī⁶⁷ and Miyāvatī.⁶⁸ (2) The second cause of war was the aggressive spirit of certain rulers. The cause if analysed was not so trivial as the wish to possess certain jewels, etc., which found expression in forcing the weaker side to accept the will of the stronger side. There was a fight between Pajjoya and Dummuha over a diadem,⁶⁹ between Nami and Caṇḍajasa over an elephant,⁷⁰ between Kūṇiya and Ceḍaga over an elephant and the necklace.⁷¹ (3) The boundary dispute or the rise of a neighbouring state sometimes brought about war. (4) The war of Cakravartins, however, was fought not for aggrandisement but for the strength of the central government. ### [c8.s3.2](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c8.s3.2) ⁵⁹ The story of Sītā is narrated in the Paumacariya. ### [c8.s3.3](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c8.s3.3) ⁶⁰ Dovai's account is given in the Nāyādhammakahā (16). ### [c8.s3.4](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c8.s3.4) ⁶¹ The war caused by carrying away of Ruppiṇī and Paumāvaī by Kṛṣṇa is described in the Triṣaṣṭiśalākāpuruṣacarita (8. 6). ### [c8.s3.5](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c8.s3.5) ⁶² The fight over Tārā is narrated in the Triṣaṣṭi (7. 6). Also cf Rāmāyaṇa, IV, 16 ### [c8.s3.6](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c8.s3.6) ⁶³ The stories of Kāñcanā, Ahinnikā, Kinnarī, Surūpā and Vijjumai, says Abhayadeva, are not known; however, Weber identified Ahinnikā with Ahalyā, the Indra's mistress in the Mahābhārata. ### [c8.s3.7](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c8.s3.7) ⁶⁴ The war caused by the abduction by Arjuna of Subhadrā is narrated in the Triṣaṣṭi (8. 6). ### [c8.s3.8](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c8.s3.8) ⁶⁵ The story of the war on the slave-girl Suvaṇṇaguliyā is narrated in the Uttarādhyayana Commentary (18, p 253 ff). ### [c8.s3.9](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c8.s3.9) ⁶⁶ The story of the fight over Rohiṇī, the mother of Balarāma and the wife of Vasudeva, is narrated in Triṣaṣṭi (8. 4), Amulyacandra Sen, A Critical Introduction to the Paṇhavāgaraṇa, p. 49 f. ### [c8.s3.10](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c8.s3.10) ⁶⁷ Nāyā. 8. ### [c8.s3.11](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c8.s3.11) ⁶⁸ Āva cū., p. 89. ### [c8.s3.12](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c8.s3.12) ⁶⁹ Uttarā Ṭī., 9, 135 f ### [c8.s3.13](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c8.s3.13) ⁷⁰ Ibid., 9, 140 f. ### [c8.s3.14](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c8.s3.14) ⁷¹ Āva. cū., II, p 172 ff ### Weapons ### [c8.s4.1](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c8.s4.1) Various kinds of weapons were used in ancient times for offensive and defensive purposes. The Paṇhavāgaraṇa mentions the following weapons : muggara (Indian club), musaṇḍhi (octagonal club),⁷² karakaya (saw), satti (spear), hala (plough), gadā (mace or heavy club), musala (pestle), cakka (discus), kunta (lance), tomara (javelin), sūla (trident spit), lauḍa (light club), bhiṇḍipāla (crooked club), savvala (an iron spear), paṭṭisa (battle-axe), cammettha (stone covered with leather), duhaṇa (hatchet), muṭṭhiya (dagger), asikheḍaga (sword with a shield), khagga (sword), cāpa (bow), nārāca (iron-tipped arrow), kanaka (arrow), kappinī (a kind of scissors), vāsi (adze), parasu (axe)⁷³ and sayagghī.⁷⁴ Defensive armours are mentioned. We are told that Kūṇika used an impregnable coat of mail while fighting with Ceḍaga.⁷⁵ ### [c8.s4.2](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c8.s4.2) ⁷² Musaṇḍi is also mentioned in the Mahābhārata (II, 70. 34). ### [c8.s4.3](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c8.s4.3) ⁷³ pp. 17a, 44, Uttarā, 19, 51 55, 58, 61 f, see also Abhidhānacintāmaṇi (3 446-451); Arthaśāstra (p 110 f); Rāmāyaṇa, III, 22 20 ff, Pusalkar, Bhāsa—A Study, ch xvi, p. 414; Banerjea, op cit, p. 204 ff, Mehta, P B I, p 171, Date, G T, The Art of War in Ancient India; Oppert Gustav, Weapons and Armoury Organisation ### [c8.s4.4](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c8.s4.4) ⁷⁴ Uttarā., 9 18, also Rāmāyaṇa, I, 6 11, according to the Arthaśāstra (p. 110), it was a big pillar with immense number of sharp points on its surface and situated on the top of a fort wall Sataghni is also mentioned in the Mahābhārata III, 291. 24; it was ornamented with bells and was bright and hollow, it was flung by hand and like a sword or a spear, was split to pieces, by arrows, Hopkins, J A O S, Vol 13, p 300 ### [c8.s4.5](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c8.s4.5) ⁷⁵ Bhag., 7. 9 ### [c8.s4.6](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c8.s4.6) Besides, magical missiles are mentioned. nāgabāṇa, tāmasabāṇa, paumabāṇa, vahnibāṇa, etc., are described as great weapons. It is said that the serpent missiles when set on the bow went forth like an arrow, then they transmuted into snakes and acted like a lasso; the missiles of darkness filled the battle-field with darkness.⁷⁶ ### [c8.s4.7](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c8.s4.7) ⁷⁶ Jīva, 3, p 152a f, Jambu Sū Ti, 21, p 124 a Also see Rāmāyaṇa, I, 27, 56 ### [c8.s4.8](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c8.s4.8) Flags, drums and trumpets roused the spirit of the warriors in ancient India. The warriors from either side tried to cut off the banners with arrows and they captured the flag and the battle was lost to the party which lost the flag⁷⁷ The Bṛhatkalpa Bhāṣya refers to four types of drums of Kanha Vāsudeva, viz., Komudikā,⁷⁸ Saṅgāmiyā, Dubbhuya, and Asivopasamini; it is said that they all were made of sandal wood. The drums were also imbued with medicinal properties. It is said that asivopasamini when beaten banished the diseases for the period of six months.⁷⁹ Kṛṣṇa possessed another drum named Sannāhiya⁸⁰ Hearing the beating of this drum the warriors gathered together and marched against the king Paumanābha.⁸¹ ### [c8.s4.9](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c8.s4.9) ⁷⁷ cf Bhag., 7 9, for the description of a flag see Kalpa, 3. 40. cf. also Rāmāyaṇa III, 27 15; Mahābhārata, VI, 83. 46 ff. ### [c8.s4.10](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c8.s4.10) ⁷⁸ In the Mahābhārata, Kaumudikī is mentioned as a mace of Kṛṣṇa; it was capable of slaying every daitya, Mahābhārata, I, 251. 28 ### [c8.s4.11](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c8.s4.11) ⁷⁹ Pi., 356 ### [c8.s4.12](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c8.s4.12) ⁸⁰ Sannāhiki bheri is also mentioned in the Mahābhārata I, 244. 38) ### [c8.s4.13](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c8.s4.13) ⁸¹ Nāyā., 16, p. 190. ### [c8.s4.14](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c8.s4.14) CHAPTER V ### [c8.s4.15](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c8.s4.15) LOCAL GOVERNMENT ### [c8.s4.16](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c8.s4.16) In India the village or a \*gāma\* formed the unit of administration. The bulk of the people as in present days lived in the villages,¹ which are described as lying within easy reach of the village cocks (\*kukkuṭa-saṇḍeya-gāmapaura\*),² and where one had to pay the eighteen kinds of taxes referred to above. A \*gāma\* was the generic term for an inhabited settlement, not possessing the fortifications of a \*nagara\* or a \*rājadhānī\*. A large number of families were reckoned as constituting a village.³ We are told that ninety six villages were attached to the town of Mahurā⁴ An interesting discussion is given on what constitutes a village in the \*Bṛhatkalpa Bhāṣya\*. (i) It is said that the limit of a village is the distance to which the cows go to graze. But this assertion is contested on the ground that the cows procceded to other villages as well; (ii) then it is stated that the distance which a grass-cutter or a wood-cutter, getting up early morning covers and after doing his work returns at sunset to his own place is called a village; (iii) a village has its own boundary; (iv) its extent could also be determined by the situation of the village garden at the end; (v) or the village-well; (vi) or the extent to which the children go to play; (vii) the nucleus of the village is formed by the erection of \*devakula\*. ### [c8.s4.17](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c8.s4.17) ¹ Bhag. Ṭī., 1. 1. ### [c8.s4.18](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c8.s4.18) ² Rāya. Sū., I. p. 4. ### [c8.s4.19](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c8.s4.19) ³ Das. cū., p. 373. According to the Nāya. Ṭī. (1, p. 43) a village constituted ten thousand families; cf. Arthaśāstra, p 45. ### [c8.s4.20](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c8.s4.20) ⁴ Brh. Bhā., 1. 1776. ### [c8.s4.21](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c8.s4.21) The \*sabhā\* or assembly hall was situated in the centre of the village.⁵ Different types of villages are mentioned such as \*uttānakamallakākāra\*, \*avāmukhamallakākāra\*, \*sampitamallakākāra\*, \*khaṇḍamallakākāra\* and others.⁶ ### [c8.s4.22](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c8.s4.22) ⁵ Ibid., 1. 1096 ff. ### [c8.s4.23](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c8.s4.23) ⁶ Ibid., 1. 1103-8 ### [c8.s4.24](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c8.s4.24) The majority of villages probably contained a heterogeneous population, but there were others inhabited exclusively or mainly by members of a single caste or followers of a single occupation. For example, the city of Vaisālī had three important suburbs, namely, Bambhaṇagāma, Khattiya-Kuṇḍaggāma and Vāṇiyagāma, inhabited by Brāhmaṇas, Kṣatriyas and the merchants in succession. Then there were villages inhabited by peacock-tamers (\*mayūraposaga\*),⁷ acrobats⁸ and robbers (\*corapalli\*).⁹ There were border villages (\*paccantagāma\*) which were in a very insecure condition.¹⁰ ### [c8.s4.25](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c8.s4.25) ⁷ Uttarā. Ṭī., 3, p. 57. ### [c8.s4.26](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c8.s4.26) ⁸ Ava. cū., p. 544. ### [c8.s4.27](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c8.s4.27) ⁹ Vivā., 3, p. 20 etc. ### [c8.s4.28](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c8.s4.28) ¹⁰ See Ava. cū., II, p. 198; cf. Cullanārada Jātaka (No. 477), IV, p. 220. ### [c8.s4.29](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c8.s4.29) Unfortunately, we do not get much information regarding the internal administration of a village. We are told that the villages were under their headmen known as \*bhojya\*, \*bhojika\*¹¹ or \*mayahara\*,¹² and the meetings of the villages were held in a hall (\*sabhā\*).¹³ The leader of a \*maḍamba\* which consisted of eighteen thousand villages was known as \*māḍambiya\*.¹⁴ The guild or corporation (\*seṇi\*) was a powerful factor in the economic and social life of the people of the village, about which we shall see further. ### [c8.s4.30](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c8.s4.30) ¹¹ \*Vya. Bhā.\*, 7, 459; cf. \*gāmabhajaka\* in the \*Dhammapada A.\*, I, p. 69; also see Rhys Davids, \*Cambridge History of India\*, p. 208. ### [c8.s4.31](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c8.s4.31) ¹² \*Uttarā. Ṭī.\*, 3, p. 57; 9, p. 142a; 18, p. 250. ### [c8.s4.32](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c8.s4.32) ¹³ \*Rāyā. Sū.\*, 21. ### [c8.s4.33](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c8.s4.33) ¹⁴ \*Vya. Bhā. Ṭī.\*, 4. 52. ### [c8.s4.34](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c8.s4.34) The first of these, the \*Gospel of the Hebrews\*, was used by the Jewish Christians of Palestine, and was probably a version of the Gospel of Matthew, though it contained some traditions not found in our canonical books. The \*Gospel of the Egyptians\* was used by the ascetic sects of Egypt, and was marked by a strong tendency towards mysticism and asceticism. The \*Gospel of Peter\* was used by the Docetists, and taught that Christ did not really suffer, but only appeared to do so. ### [c8.s4.35](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c8.s4.35) These gospels, and others like them, were not accepted by the Church as a whole, and were gradually lost or suppressed. The Church, however, felt the need for a standard collection of writings that would serve as a guide for faith and practice. This led to the formation of the New Testament canon, a process that took several centuries to complete. ### [c8.s4.36](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c8.s4.36) The first step in this process was the collection of the letters of Paul, which were widely circulated among the churches. Then came the four Gospels, which were accepted as the authoritative accounts of the life and teachings of Jesus. The Acts of the Apostles and the other epistles were gradually added, and finally the Book of Revelation. ### [c8.s4.37](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c8.s4.37) By the end of the second century, the core of the New Testament was generally accepted by the Church. The process of canonization was not a formal act of a council, but rather a gradual recognition by the churches of the writings that were most valuable for their life and worship. It was only in the fourth century that the canon was formally closed by the councils of the Church. ### [c8.s4.38](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c8.s4.38) The formation of the New Testament canon was a crucial event in the history of the Church. It provided a standard of faith and practice that helped to unify the Church and to protect it from the influence of heretical sects. It also ensured that the teachings of Jesus and the apostles would be preserved for future generations. ## Linked texts (25) - [Vālmīkirāmāyaṇa](https://indike.org/pramana/in.lit.ramayana.valmiki.4.16) — Vālmīki, Sanskrit - [Viyāhapannatti](https://indike.org/pramana/in.jaina.sveta.anga.5.7.9) — Sudharman, Ardhamāgadhī Prakrit - [Mahābhārata](https://indike.org/pramana/in.lit.mahabharata.vyasa.2.70) — Vyāsa, Sanskrit - [Mānava Dharmaśāstra](https://indike.org/pramana/in.niti.dharma.manu.7.64) — Manu & Bhṛgu, Sanskrit - [Jātaka](https://indike.org/pramana/in.bauddha.theravada.sp.khuddaka.jataka.477) — Pāli - [Cūḷasaccakasutta](https://indike.org/pramana/in.bauddha.theravada.sp.majjhima.35.5.1) — Pāli - [Bhaddālisutta](https://indike.org/pramana/in.bauddha.theravada.sp.majjhima.65.32.6) — Pāli - [Assājānīyasutta](https://indike.org/pramana/in.bauddha.theravada.sp.anguttara.8.13.2.1) — Pāli - [Harivaṃśa](https://indike.org/pramana/in.lit.mahabharata.harivamsa.2.42) — Vyāsa, Sanskrit - [Paümacariu](https://indike.org/pramana/in.jaina.anuyoga.epic.paumacariu) — Svayambhū, Apabhraṃśa - [Kauṭilīya Arthaśāstra](https://indike.org/pramana/in.niti.artha.kautilya) — Kauṭilya, Sanskrit - [Bṛhatsaṃhitā](https://indike.org/pramana/in.astro.samhita.rsi.brhatsamhita) — Varāhamihira, Sanskrit - [Uttarajjhayaṇa](https://indike.org/pramana/in.jaina.sveta.mula.2) — Ardhamāgadhī Prakrit - [Nāyādhammakahāo](https://indike.org/pramana/in.jaina.sveta.anga.6) — Sudharman, Ardhamāgadhī Prakrit - [Piṇḍanijjutti](https://indike.org/pramana/in.jaina.sveta.mula.4) — Bhadrabāhu & Bhadrabāhu II, Māhārāṣṭrī Prakrit - [Bṛhatkalpalaghubhāṣya](https://indike.org/pramana/in.jaina.sveta.cheda.2!bhasya) — Saṅghadāsagaṇi Kṣamāśramaṇa, Māhārāṣṭrī Prakrit - [Kalpasūtra](https://indike.org/pramana/in.jaina.sveta.cheda.1.kalpasutra) — Bhadrabāhu, Ardhamāgadhī Prakrit - [Dasaveyāliyacuṇṇi (Jinadāsa)](https://indike.org/pramana/in.jaina.sveta.mula.1!curni) — Jinadāsagaṇi Mahattara, Māhārāṣṭrī Prakrit - [Jīvājīvābhigama](https://indike.org/pramana/in.jaina.sveta.upanga.3) — Ardhamāgadhī Prakrit - [Jambuddīvapannatti](https://indike.org/pramana/in.jaina.sveta.upanga.6) — Ardhamāgadhī Prakrit - [Paṇhāvāgaraṇa](https://indike.org/pramana/in.jaina.sveta.anga.10) — Sudharman, Ardhamāgadhī Prakrit - [Triṣaṣṭiśalākāpuruṣacarita](https://indike.org/pramana/in.jaina.anuyoga.epic.trisasti) — Hemacandra, Sanskrit - [Vivāgasuya](https://indike.org/pramana/in.jaina.sveta.anga.11) — Sudharman, Ardhamāgadhī Prakrit - [Abhidhānacintāmaṇi](https://indike.org/pramana/in.art.kosa.paryaya.abhidhanacintamani) — Hemacandra, Sanskrit - [Vyavahārabhāṣya (Kusumpragya Shramani, Jain Vishva Bharati, 1996)](https://indike.org/pramana/in.jaina.sveta.cheda.3!bhasya*kusumaprajna1996) — Māhārāṣṭrī Prakrit --- Source: [https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c8](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.jain-1947.c8) · Pramāṇa