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Life in Ancient India as Depicted in the Jain Canons, with Commentaries: An Administrative, Economic, Social and Geographical Survey c9.s8: Transport

Life in Ancient India as Depicted in the Jain Canons, with Commentaries: An Administrative, Economic, Social and Geographical Survey c9.s8

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English

Transport

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For the growth of trade and commerce, it is essential that there should be fairly developed means of rapid and cheap communication or transport. Kautilya mentions construction of roads for traffic both by land or water.54 Mention is made of triangular roads (siṅghāḍaga), junction of three roads (tiga), of four roads (caukka), of many roads (caccara), highways (mahāpaha), royal roads (rājamagga),55 which might suggest the existence of well constructed roads. Still the conditions of the roads, do not appear to have been satisfactory. They lay through forests and deserts and were beset with many dangers such as excessive rainfall, the fear of robbers, obstruction by rogues, elephants, the obstruction by state, forest conflagration, the bamboo forest, demons, ditches, wild beasts, draught, famine and poisonous trees.56 We read in the Avaśyaka cūrṇi57 that in Siṇavallī, around which there was a formidable desert and where there was no water and shade, a caravan suffered due to thirst. Similarly, we are told that some mendicants, who travelled from Kampillapura to Purimatāla, lost their lives due to lack of water.58 We are told that the people while travelling in the deserts followed the nails (kīlaka) that were stuck in the earth in order to indicate the direction59. Then the Avasyaka cūrṇi gives an account of the merchant Dhanna who journeyed with five hundred waggons loaded with various commodities. The merchant crossed the river Vegavai with great difficulty when one of his bullocks died.60 The country of Tosali was well-known for fierce she-buffaloes.61 The country of Koṅkana was full of wild beasts, particularly lions.62

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In view of these difficulties in those days, traders used to travel in a caravan, as we have seen before. A graphic description of the caravans is given in the Jain texts. The caravans were classified in the following divisions: (i) who carried their goods by carts and waggons (bhaṇḍi), (ii) who carried by camels, mules and bullocks (bahilaga), (iii) who carried their own loads (bhāravaha), (iv) the wandering people who travelled to earn their livelihood and went from place to place (odariyā), and (v) the Kārpaṭika ascetics (kappaḍiya).⁶³ The caravan engaged with it anuraṅgā (ghamsikā, com.), litters, horses, buffaloes, elephants, bullocks for the purpose of mounting the sick, wounded, boys, and old men, who were unable to walk.⁶⁴ The caravan is praised which started with cart loads of dantikku (modaka, maṇḍaka and aśokavartin etc. com.), wheat (gora), sesamum, seeds, molasses and ghee etc. because in unforeseen calamities such as rain and flood food was available to the members of the caravan.⁶⁵

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⁶³ Brh. Bhā 1 3066 ff

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⁶⁴ ibid 1 3071

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⁶⁵ ibid 3072, also see 3075 ff

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The proper means of transport was the cart or waggon (sagaḍīsāgaḍa). The merchant Ānanda had five hundred carts for distant traffic (disāyatta) and the same number for local use (samvahanīya).⁶⁶ Coach-houses (jānasālā) are mentioned. The coachmen used to look after the carts and vehicles, they cleaned them and decorated with ornaments before plying. The carts were drawn by oxen in charge of drivers (paoadhara) and were furnished with goads (paodalatthi).⁶⁷ The oxen are described as having sharp horns furnished with bells, cords made of cotton (suttarajju) inlaid with gold, bridle (paggaha), and the crest of blue lotuses.⁶⁸ Branding or castrating of bulls (nillañchaṇakamma) was in vogue.⁶⁹ Goods were carried by waggons, horses, boats and ships.⁷⁰

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⁶⁶ Uvā 1, p 7

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⁶⁷ Ovā Sū. 30, p 120 The Rāmāyaṇa III, 35 4 also mentions yānasālā.

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⁶⁸ Nāyā. 3, p. 60

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⁶⁹ Uvā. 1, p 11.

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⁷⁰ Brh. Bhā 1 1090.

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Among richer style of cars there was raha, which was drawn by horses. Chariots driven by four horses are mentioned.⁷¹ Litters or sivikās or sandamānis were used by the royalty and the wealthy. The state litters bore special names.⁷² The litter known as jugga was used in the country of Lāṭa ;⁷³ it measured two hands and was equipped with railings. Dagaṇa⁷⁴ is mentioned as another vehicle.

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⁷¹ Āva cū, p 188.

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⁷² Uttarā Ṭī. 23, p 292; Kalpa sū 5 113.

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⁷³ Bhag Ṭī 3. 4, Yugya is also mentioned in the Rāmāyaṇa, II, 89 16.

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⁷⁴ Brh. Bhā. 1·3171.

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The great rivers furnished another means of communication and some facilities of transport. There were fording places and the streams and water courses were crossed by means of boats, which are denoted by the words nāvā, agaṭṭhiyā⁷⁵ antaraṇḍakagoliyā (canoes), koñcavīraga⁷⁶ and the boats having the shape of an elephant’s trunk⁷⁷ and leather bag (daīya, com. dṛti) and goat skin.⁷⁸

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⁷⁵ Cf Ekthas, they came from Nepal and carried 40 to 50 maunds of grain (F. Buchanan, An account of Bihar and Patna in 1811-27, p 705).

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⁷⁶ Bṛh Bhā 1, 2397.

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⁷⁷ Mahā. Ni, 41, 35 ; Gaccha, Vr. p. 50 a ff.

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⁷⁸ Piṇḍa 42 ; Sūya. 1.11, p. 196.

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The maritime transport also seems to have been quite developed, though the sea-voyages were full of dangers. We hear of a ship (pavahaṇa) of certain merchants bound for Vūbhaya which rambled in the sea for six months.⁷⁹ The ship-wrecks were most common. There were serious disturbances from the goblins and terrible cyclones (kāliyavāya) when the life of the traders was put in great danger. We read in the Nāyādhammakahā how the two merchant’s sons, after their vessel was wrecked, reached Rayaṇadīva with the help of a piece of plank (phalagakhaṇḍa)⁸⁰

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⁷⁹ Uttarā Ṭī. 18, p. 252 a

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⁸⁰ 9, p. 123.

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The Nāyādhammakahā gives a beautiful description of a sea-voyage. Arhannaga and other merchants of Campā loaded their boats with four-fold merchandise, offered flowers and bali (offerings) to gods, worshipped the sea-winds, raised the white flags on the mast, stretched the oars (valayabāhā), noticed good omens, secured the passport and amidst the beating of drums boarded the boat. The friends and relatives who had gathered on the port bade them goodbye and wished them a speedy return and success in their enterprise with eyes full of tears. The ropes were released and the merchants proceeded on their journey.⁸¹

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⁸¹ 8, p. 97 ff ; also cf. Avadāna sataka, III, 3, p. 199. The Divyāvadāna (XVIII, p 220) mentions the following dangers of the sea : dangers from whale, waves, tortoise, danger of destruction on land, or loss in the water, danger of being struck by submarine rocks, danger from a kālikāvāta or cyclone and from pirates.

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Then we come across another description of a ship-wreck when the vessel tossed in the sea due to a terrible cyclone. The sailors and crew were puzzled, forgot the right direction and did not know what to do. Everybody felt very sad and all began to propitiate various deities, such as Indra, Skanda, etc. losing all hope of life.⁸²

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⁸² Nāyā 17, p. 201.

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The sea-going vessel is denoted by the words, poya, poyavahaṇa, vahana or pavahaṇa. We learn that the two daughters of king Paṇḍusena of Pāṇdu Mahurā arrived at Surattha by the ship vārivasabha.⁸³ The ships made their onward journey by the force of wind (pavaṇabalasamāhaya); they were fitted with oars and rudders (valayabāhā), sails and anchors,⁸⁴ the pilot on board (nijjamaya) piloted the ship. The other workers on the ship were boatsmen (kucchidhāraya), helmsmen (kaṇṇadhāra) and crew (gabhhijja). To obtain a passport (rāyavarasāsana) was necessary.⁸⁵ The merchants proceeded on their journey after having their breakfast (pāyarāsehim) halting at various places.⁸⁶ They visited the king with presents who made them free from taxes giving a suitable place for their residence.⁸⁷

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⁸³ Ava cū II, 197.

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⁸⁴ Nāyā., 8, 98, the Ācā. (II 3.1. 342) mentions the following nautical instruments : āliṭṭa, pīḍhaya, vamsa, balaya, avaluya and rajju. For the qualities of the anchor (nāvālakanaka), mast (kūpa), pilot (nyāmaka) and sailor (kammakara) see also Milinda-pañha, p. 377 f.

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⁸⁵ Nāyā. 8, p. 98.

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⁸⁶ ibid, 15, p. 160.

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⁸⁷ ibid, 8, p. 102.

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