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Life in Ancient India as Depicted in the Jain Canons, with Commentaries: An Administrative, Economic, Social and Geographical Survey c9.t11: Mining and Metallurgy

Life in Ancient India as Depicted in the Jain Canons, with Commentaries: An Administrative, Economic, Social and Geographical Survey c9.t11

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Mining and Metallurgy

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India was rich in mineral wealth and so in ancient India mining was an important industry. The principle kinds of ores obtained from mines were iron, copper, tin, lead, silver (hiraṇṇa or ruppa), gold (suvaṇṇa) and diamond.¹³² Kāliyadīva possessed rich mines of gold, jewels and diamond.¹³³ Iron and other metals were obtained by fusion.¹³⁴

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¹³² Ibid. 5, p. 412 Panna. 1 15; Thū. 4 349

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¹³³ Nāyā. 17, p. 202, Uttarā 36.73

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¹³⁴ Brh. Bhā. 1. 1090

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Besides metals there were hundreds of mineral substances such as salt (loṇa), soda (ūsa), yellow orpiment (hariyāla), vermilion (hiṅgulaya), arsenic (manośila), mercury (sāsaga), antimony (añjana) and others.¹³⁵

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¹³⁵ Uttarā. Sū 36 74, Sūya II 3 61, Panna 1 15

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In those days Indians and specially women-folk were as fond of ornaments as they are now. So gold-smiths (suvaṇṇakāra) had a flourishing trade.¹³⁶ Kumāranandī is mentioned as a rich gold-smith of Campā,¹³⁷ Musiyadāraya was another gold-smith (kalūya) of Teyalīpura.¹³⁸

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¹³⁶ It is said that the ornaments of Visākhā were made in four months with five hundred gold-smiths working day and night. (Dhammapada A I. pp 384 ff)

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¹³⁷ Āva, Cū p. 397.

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¹³⁸ Nāyā., 14.

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Fourteen kinds of ornaments are mentioned : a chain of eighteen strings of pearls (hāra), a chain of nine strings of pearls (addhahāra), a single string of pearls (egāvalī), a necklace of gold and gems (kaṇagāvalī), a necklace of jewels (rayaṇāvalī), a necklace of pearls (muttāvalī), an armlet for upper arm (keūra), a bracelet (kaḍaya), an armlet (tuḍiya), finger ring (muddā), ear-rings (kuṇḍala), a chain round the chest (urasutta), crest-jewel (cūḷāmaṇi) and ornament worn between the eye-brows on the forehead (tilaya).¹³⁹

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¹³⁹ Jambu. Ti Sū, 3, p 216f, Nisī Cū, p 465

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The ornaments hāra, addahāra, tisaraya (a chain of three strings of pearls), palamba (a pearl pendant), kaḍisutta (waist band), gevijja (neck-chain), aṅgulejjaya (rings), kayābharaṇa (ornaments of the han), kaḍaga, tuḍiya, muddā, kuṇḍala, mauḍa (diadem), valaga (bracelets),¹⁴⁰ aṅgaya (bracelets worn on the upper arm), pāyapalamba (ornament reaching the feet),¹⁴¹ vatthasuttaga (ornament string for the waist) and maṇavi¹⁴² were worn by males. The ornaments for ladies were neura (anklets), mehalā (girdle), hāra, kaḍaga, khuḍḍaya (a ring), valaya, kuṇḍala, rayaṇa (jewels)¹⁴³ and dīnāramālā (a necklace of jewels with a string of dīnāra).¹⁴⁴

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¹⁴⁰ Oṭā. Sū, 31, p. 122, Kalpa. Sū, 4. 62.

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¹⁴¹ Nāyā, 1. p. 30.

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¹⁴² Rāya. Sū., 137.

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¹⁴³ Nāyā, 1, p. 11.

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¹⁴⁴ Kalpa. Sū., 3. 36; also see Dhammapada A. I, p. 394.

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A golden frontlet measuring four fingers (patta)¹⁴⁵ and signet rings (nāmamuddā) were common.¹⁴⁶

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¹⁴⁵ Nisī cū 7, p 165

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¹⁴⁶ Āia. Tī (Han), p. 700.

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The elephants and horses were decorated with ornaments. The elephants are described as fitted with armours and decorated with neck-ornaments made of various gems and jewels and upper garment. The horses also were gaily caparisoned with armour and decorated with small mirrors (thāsaga) on their waists and chowries.¹⁴⁷ Mayūra-gacūlikās are referred to as ornaments of cows.¹⁴⁸

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¹⁴⁷ Vuā 2 p 13

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¹⁴⁸ Vja. Bha. 3 35.

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Then the rich and the kings used golden vessels for eating and drinking. The chair, bed-steads, thrones and royal cars used by kings inlaid with gold.¹⁴⁹ Golden vases (bhangāra) were not unknown.¹⁵⁰

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¹⁴⁹ Cf the list of Pītidānu in Nāyā. Tī., 1, p. 42a

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¹⁵⁰ ibid, 1, p 26.

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Silver (rajata) was used frequently. Silver vessels are mentioned freely.¹⁵¹

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¹⁵¹ ibid cf p. 12a

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Among precious metals and jewellery mention may be made of precious stones, jewels, pearls, conches, corals, rubies,¹⁵² gomedaya (zircon), rucaka, anka, sphatika (quartz) lohitākṣa, marakata (emerald), masāragalla,¹⁵³ bhujagamocaka (serpentine), indranīla (sapphue), hamsagarbha (a variety of rock-crystl), pulaka, sāgandhika (a ruby) candraprabhā, vaidūrya (cat's eye), jalakānta or candrakānta (moon-stone) and sūryakānta¹⁵⁴ (sun-stone).

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¹⁵² Kalpa, Sū 4 89

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¹⁵³ Also mentioned in the Pāma ana III 43 28, Mahabhā VII 16 66 Masāragalla stones were obtained from Masāra hill (Rhys Davids, Milinda, Trans 177 n 6) According to Sammoha Vinodini (p 61) it is kelaranni According to Dr Suniti Kumar Chatterji (New Indian Antiquary, Vol II (1939-10), however, Masāragalla is of Chinese origin

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¹⁵⁴ Uttarā. Sū 36 751, Panna 1 17, also cf Brhatsamhitā (79, 4 f), Divyāvadāna (XVIII, p 229), Milindapañha, p 118 The Paramatthadīpani, the com. on the Udana, p 103 mentions the following gems Vajra, mahānīla, indanīla, marakata, veluriya, padumaraga, phussarāga, hakkatana, phulaka, vimala, lohtanka, phalika, pavāla, jotiranga, gomutaka, gomeda, sogardhika, muttā, sankha, anjamūla, rājāratla, amatabbāka, piyaka and brāhmaṇi; see also Agastimat's list in the Les Lapidairas Indiens, p. 137 by Louis Finot, Paris, 1896.

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Nanda is mentioned as a rich jeweller of Rāyagaha.¹⁵⁵

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¹⁵⁵ Nāyā 13 p 141

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Bhaṇḍāgāra was known as a treasury where sixteen kinds of jewels were preserved.¹⁵⁶ We also hear often of expert stringers (muttis).¹⁵⁷

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¹⁵⁶ Nisī Cū, 9, p. 511.

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¹⁵⁷ Āia. Tī (Han), 947. p. 426a.

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