[Pramāṇa](https://indike.org/pramana/) › [Studies](https://indike.org/pramana/ins) › [Polity, law and society](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity) › [History of Dharmashastra (Ancient and Mediaeval Religious and Civil Law in India)](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.kane-1930) › v3.c46 # History of Dharmashastra (Ancient and Mediaeval Religious and Civil Law in India) v3.c46: Chapter XXVIII. Sannyāsa History of Dharmaśāstra (Ancient and Mediaeval Religious and Civil Law in India) v3.c46 - **Language:** English ## Contents - [v3.c46.90](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.kane-1930.v3.c46.90) — 5 parts - [v3.c46.101](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.kane-1930.v3.c46.101) — 5 parts - [v3.c46.123](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.kane-1930.v3.c46.123) — 4 parts ### Chapter XXVIII. Sannyāsa ### [v3.c46.2](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.kane-1930.v3.c46.2) \*Sannyāsa.\*—(the order of ascetics). That the Chān. Up. was well aware of the three āśramas of student-hood, householder and forest hermit has been shown above (p. 420). It is somewhat doubtful whether the Chān. Up. regarded sannyāsa as the fourth and the last stage in a man's life when ideally planned. It merely states that 'one that holds fast by the realization of \*brahman\* attains immortality'. But it appears that a stage of the abandonment of worldly riches, a life of begging and contemplation of the Absolute and its realization had been known to the earliest Upaniṣads like the Bṛhadāraṇyaka. Whether it was the fourth stage or whether it could be reached even in the stage of brahmacarya or of a house-holder is left in doubt so far as the older Upaniṣads are concerned. The Jābālopaniṣad (4) has been quoted above (p. 421) to show that it gave an option either to regard sannyāsa as the 4th stage in a man's life or to resort to it immediately after any of the first two āśramas. ### [v3.c46.3](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.kane-1930.v3.c46.3) In the Bṛ. Up. (II. 4. 1) we see that Yājñavalkya²¹⁴⁶ when about to become a \*parivrājaka\* (a wandering ascetic) tells his wife Maitreyī that he was going to leave home and that he wanted to divide whatever wealth he had between her and her co-wife Kātyāyanī. This shows that a \*parivrājaka\* had even then to leave home and wife and to give up all belongings. The same Upaniṣad in another place (III. 5. 1) states 'those who realize \*Ātman\* give up the hankering after progeny, possessions and heavenly worlds and practise the beggar's mode of life; therefore the brāhmaṇa, having completely mastered (and so risen beyond) mere learning, should seek to be like a child (i. e. should not make a parade of his latent capacities or knowledge) and having completed (gone beyond) knowledge and \*bālya\* (child-like behaviour) he should attain to the position of a \*muni\*, and having risen beyond the stage of a \*muni\* or \*non-muni\*, should become a real brāhmaṇa (one who has realized \*brahman\*). Vide also Bṛ. Up. IV. 4. 22 for similar words and sentiments. The Jābālopaniṣad (5)²¹⁴⁷ declares that the ascetic (\*parivrāṭ\*) wears discoloured (not white) garments, has a tonsured head, has no possessions, is pure, hates (or injures) no one, begs for alms and thereby tends to attain non-difference from \*brahman\*. In the Paramahaṁsa, the Brahma, the Nārada-parivrājaka, and the Sannyāsa Upaniṣads numerous rules are laid down about sannyāsa. But the antiquity and the authenticity of these Upaniṣads is extremely doubtful and therefore passing them over attention will be confined to the dharmasūtras and other ancient smṛtis. ### [v3.c46.4](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.kane-1930.v3.c46.4) ²¹⁴⁶ मैत्रेयीति होवाच याज्ञवल्क्य उद्यास्यन्वा अरेऽहमस्मात्स्थानादस्मि हन्त तेऽनया कात्यायन्याऽन्तं करवाणीति। बृह. उ. II. 4. 1; एतं वै तमात्मानं विदित्वा ब्राह्मणाः पुत्रैषणायाश्च वित्तैषणायाश्च लोकैषणायाश्च व्युत्थायाथ भिक्षाचर्यं चरन्ति। ... ... तस्माद् ब्राह्मणः पाण्डित्यं निर्विद्य बाल्येन तिष्ठासेत्। बाल्यं च पाण्डित्यं च निर्विद्याथ मुनिरमौनं च मौनं च निर्विद्याथ ब्राह्मणः। बृह. उ. III. 5. 1. Vide Vedāntasūtra III. 4. 47-49 and 50 for a discussion of this last passage. ### [v3.c46.5](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.kane-1930.v3.c46.5) ²¹⁴⁷ अथ परिव्राड् विवर्णवासा मुण्डोऽपरिग्रहः शुचिरद्रोही भैक्षणो ब्रह्मभूयाय भवतीति। जाबालोपनिषद् 5, quoted by शङ्कराचार्य in his भाष्य on बृह. उ. III. 5. 1 as śruti. ### [v3.c46.6](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.kane-1930.v3.c46.6) Gaut. III. 10–24, Āp. Dh. S. II. 9. 21. 7–20, Baud. Dh. S. II. 6. 21–27 and II. 10, Vas. Dh. S. X., Manu VI. 33–86, Yāj. III. 56–66, Vaik. IX. 9, Viṣṇu Dh. S. 96, Śāntiparva chap. 246 and 279, Ādiparva chap. 119. 7–21 and Āśvamedhika 46. 18–46, Śaṅkha-smṛti (VII. in verse), Dakṣa VII. 28–38, Kūrmapurāṇa (Uttarārdha, chap. 28), Agnipurāṇa 161 and many other smṛtis and purāṇas dilate upon the characteristics and duties of ascetics (\*yatidharma\*). Some of the most salient features are set out below with a few references. ### [v3.c46.7](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.kane-1930.v3.c46.7) (1) In order to qualify himself for sannyāsa, a person had to perform a sacrifice to Prajāpati in which whatever he had he distributed to priests and the poor and the helpless (Manu VI. 38, Yāj. III. 56, Viṣṇu Dh. S. 96. 1, Śaṅkha VII. 1).²¹⁴⁸ The Yatidharmasaṅgraha (p. 13) prescribes that the Prājāpatyeṣṭi should be performed by him who had kept the three vedic fires and the iṣṭi to Agni should be performed by others who kept only the gṛhya fire. The Jābālopaniṣad 4 adds that the sacrifice should be for Agni (and not for Prajāpati as some hold). The Nṛsiṁhapurāṇa (60. 2-4) requires that before entering upon this order one should perform eight śrāddhas. The Nṛsiṁhapurāṇa 58. 36 allows every one who is a vedic student to become an ascetic if his tongue, his sexual emotions, his appetite for food and his speech are pure (i. e. under strict control). The eight śrāddhas are daiva (to Vasus, Rudras, Ādityas), ārṣa (to the ten sages viz. Marīci and others), divya (to Hiraṇyagarbha and Vairāja), mānuṣya (to Sanaka, Sanandana and five others), bhautika (to five bhūtas, pṛthvī &c.), paitṛka (to Kavyavāḍ fire, Soma, Aryaman, pitṛs called Agniṣvātta &c.), mātṛśrāddha (to ten mātṛs such as Gaurī, Padmā), ātmaśrāddha (to Paramātman). Vide Yati-dh. p. 9 and Sm. M. p. 177. Manu is careful to point out (VI. 35-37) that a man should fix his mind on mokṣa after studying the Veda, procreating sons, performing sacrifices i. e. after discharging his debts to the sages, the pitṛs and gods. Baud. Dh. S. II. 10. 3-6 and Vaik. IX. 6 state that an householder who has no children or whose wife is dead or who has established his children in the path of dharma or who is over 70 may become an ascetic. Kauṭilya (II. 1) prescribes that if a person embraces the order of ascetics without making proper provision for his wife and sons he shall be punished with the first ammercement.²¹⁴⁹ He has to deposit his fires in himself and leave home (Manu VI. 38). ### [v3.c46.8](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.kane-1930.v3.c46.8) ²¹⁴⁸ यस्यैतानि सुगुप्तानि जिह्वोपस्थोदरं गिरः। संन्यसेदकृतोद्वाहो ब्राह्मणो ब्रह्मचर्यवान् ॥ नृसिंहपुराण 58. 36. स्मृतिमु. (वर्णाश्रम) p. 173 quotes it as of व्यास and reads सुगुप्तानि, and करः for गिरः. अपरार्क p. 951 quotes this from नृसिंहपुराण but reads सुगुप्तानि and शिरः; बौधायनोक्तं पुरश्चरणादिकं च कृत्वा तथाधीतवेदो जपपरायणो जातपुत्रो दीनान्धकृपणार्पितार्थो यथाशक्त्यन्नदश्च भूत्वा ... ... चतुर्थाश्रमं प्रविशेन्नान्यथा। मिता० on या. III. 56–57. ### [v3.c46.9](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.kane-1930.v3.c46.9) ²¹⁴⁹ पुत्रदारमप्रतिविधाय प्रव्रजतः पूर्वः साहसदण्डः स्त्रियं च प्रव्राजयतः । कौटिल्य II. 1. ### [v3.c46.10](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.kane-1930.v3.c46.10) (2) After leaving home, wife, children and possessions, he should dwell outside the villages, should be homeless and stay under a tree or in an un-inhabited house wherever he may be when the sun sets and should always wander from place to place; but he may remain in one place only in the rainy season²¹⁵⁰ (Manu VI. 41, 43-44, Vas. Dh. S. X. 12-15, Śaṅkha VII. 6). Śaṅkha (quoted by the Mit. on Yāj. III. 58) allows him to stay in one place only for two months in the rains, while Kaṇva says that he may stay one night in a village and five in a town (except in the rains). When he follows the rule of staying four or two months in one place, he should do so from the full moon of Āṣāḍha or an ascetic may always stay on the banks of the Ganges. ### [v3.c46.11](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.kane-1930.v3.c46.11) ²¹⁵⁰ अनित्यं वसतिं वसेत् । ग्रामान्ते देवगृहे शून्यागारे वा वृक्षमूले वा । अरण्यनित्यः । वसिष्ठ X. 12-13, 15; शून्यागारनिकेतः स्याद्यत्रसायंगृहो मुनिः । शङ्ख VII. 6; the words यत्रसायंगृहो मुनिः occur in वनपर्व 12. 11 also. ### [v3.c46.12](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.kane-1930.v3.c46.12) (3) He should always wander alone without a companion, as by so doing he will be free from attachments and the pangs of separation. Dakṣa (VII. 34-38) emphasizes this²¹⁵¹ point very well 'the real ascetic always stays alone; if two stay together, they form a pair; if three stay together they are like a village and if more (than three stay together) then it becomes like a town. An ascetic should not form a pair or a village or a town; by so doing he swerves from his \*dharma\*, since (if two or more stay together) they begin to exchange news about the ruling prince, about the alms obtained and by close contact sentiments of affection, jealousy or wickedness arise between them. Bad ascetics engage in many activities viz. expounding (texts) for securing money or honour and also gathering pupils round them. There are only four proper actions for an ascetic and no fifth viz. contemplation, purity, begging, always staying alone'. Nārada says 'there are six acts which ascetics must do as if ordered by the king under the threat of a penalty viz. begging, \*japa\*, contemplation, bath (thrice daily), purity and worship of Śiva or Viṣṇu (quoted in Yati-dh. p. 62 and Sm. M. p. 188).2151a ### [v3.c46.13](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.kane-1930.v3.c46.13) ²¹⁵¹ एको भिक्षुर्यथोक्तस्तु द्वौ भिक्षू मिथुनं स्मृतम् । त्रयो ग्रामः समाख्यात ऊर्ध्वं तु नगरायते ॥ नगरं हि न कर्तव्यं ग्रामो वा मिथुनं तथा । एतत्त्रयं प्रकुर्वाणः स्वधर्माच्च्यवते यतिः ॥ राजवार्ता ततस्तेषां भिक्षावार्ता परस्परम् । स्नेहपैशुन्यमात्सर्यं संनिकर्षान्न संशयः ॥ लाभपूजा-निमित्तं तु व्याख्यानं शिष्यसंग्रहः । एते चान्ये च बहवः प्रपञ्चाः कुतपस्विनाम् ॥ ध्यानं शौचं तथा भिक्षा नित्यमेकान्तशीलता । भिक्षोश्चत्वारि कर्माणि पञ्चमं नोपपद्यते ॥ दक्ष VII. 34-38 quoted by अपरार्क p. 952 and मिता. on या. III. 58. ### [v3.c46.14](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.kane-1930.v3.c46.14) 2151a 2151. a नारदवचनम् । भिक्षाटनं जपो ध्यानं स्नानं शौचं सुरार्चनम् । कर्तव्यानि षडे-तानि यतीनां नृपदण्डवत् ॥ quoted in यतिधर्मसंग्रह p. 62, as मेधातिथि's in स्मृतिमु. p. 188. ### [v3.c46.15](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.kane-1930.v3.c46.15) (4) He should be celibate, should always be devoted to contemplation and spiritual knowledge and should be unattached to all objects of sense and pleasure (Manu VI. 41 and 49, Gaut. III. 11). ### [v3.c46.16](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.kane-1930.v3.c46.16) (5) He should move about avoiding all trouble or injury to creatures, should make all creatures safe with him, should bear with indifference all disrespect, should entertain no anger towards him who is furious with him, should utter benedictions over him also who runs him down, should never utter an untruth (Manu VI. 40, 47-48, Yāj. III. 61, Gaut. III. 23). ### [v3.c46.17](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.kane-1930.v3.c46.17) (6) He should neither kindle śrauta fires nor gṛhya fire nor even ordinary fire for cooking food and should subsist on food obtained by begging (Manu VI. 38 and 43, Āp. Dh. S. I. 9. 21. 10, Ādiparva 91. 12). ### [v3.c46.18](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.kane-1930.v3.c46.18) (7) He may enter a village for begging food only once a day, he should not ordinarily stay in a village at night (except in the rains) but if he stays at all he should do so only for one night (Gaut. III. 13 and 20, Manu VI. 43, 55). ### [v3.c46.19](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.kane-1930.v3.c46.19) (8) He should beg alms from seven houses without selecting them beforehand (Vas. Dh. S. X. 7, Śaṅkha VII. 3, Ādi. 119. 12 'five or ten houses'). Baud. Dh. S. (II. 10. 57-58) prescribes that he should visit for alms the houses of brāhmaṇa householders of the Śālīna and Yāyāvara types and should only wait for as much time as would be required for milking a cow. Baud. Dh. S. II. 10. 69 quotes the view of others that an ascetic may take alms from persons of all varṇas or food from only one among dvijātis; Vas. X. 24 also says that he should beg of brāhmaṇas only. The Vāyupurāṇa I. 18. 17 prescribes that ascetics should not eat food belonging to one man (but should eat food collected from several houses), or flesh or honey should not accept āmaśrāddha (i. e. śrāddha with uncooked food), should not use salt directly or by itself (i. e. they may eat vegetables in cooking which salt has been used). According to Uśanas (quoted in Sm. M. p. 200 and Yati-dh. pp. 74-75) food obtained by begging is of five kinds viz. \*mādhukara\* (collecting food from any three, five or seven houses at random just as bees collect honey from any flowers), \*prākpraṇīta\* (when a request is made by devotees to take food at their houses even before the ascetic gets up from his bed), \*ayācita\* (when invitation to take food at his house is given by a man before the ascetic starts on his begging round), \*tātkālika\* (the food that is announced by a brāhmaṇa the moment the ascetic approaches), \*upapanna\* (cooked food brought to the \*maṭha\* by devoted disciples or other people). Vas. Dh. S. X. 31 says that a brāhmaṇa ascetic should avoid food at śūdra houses and Aparārka p. 963 explains this as implying that in the absence of brāhmaṇa houses an ascetic may beg for food from kṣatriyas and vaiśyas. In later times begging alms from persons of all castes was forbidden, being included among \*kalivarjya\* actions ('yates tu sarva-varṇeṣu na bhikṣācaraṇaṁ kalau'). Vide Sm. M. p. 201. It was stated by Parāśara and Kratu that no fault attaches to an ascetic if he being very old or very ill took food from a single person on a certain day or for several days or begged for food at the house of his sons, friends, teacher or brothers or wife (vide Sm. M. p. 201, Yatidh. p. 75). According to Parāśara I. 51 and the Sūtasaṁhitā (Jñāna-yoga-khaṇḍa 4. 15-16) the first claim on the food cooked in the house is that of an ascetic and a brahmacārin and one has to perform the Cāndrāyaṇa penance for taking one's meals without giving alms to them. In giving food to an ascetic first water is poured on his hand, then food is given and then again water is poured on his hand (Parāśara I. 53 quoted by Haradatta on Gaut. V. 16). Vide Āp. Dh. S. II. 2. 4. 10 and Yāj. I. 107. ### [v3.c46.20](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.kane-1930.v3.c46.20) (9) He should go out for begging when the smoke from kitchens has ceased to rise and when the noise of pestles has died down and the live coals (in the kitchen) have been extinguished and the plates used for the dining (by the householders) have been kept aside i. e. he should beg food in the evening (Manu VI. 56, Yāj. III. 59, Vas. X. 8, Śaṅkha VII. 2). He should not take as alms honey or flesh (Vas. X. 24). He should not endeavour to secure alms by the practice of predicting, interpreting portents and omens or by the practice of describing the consequences indicated by them, nor by astrology nor by expounding the principles of a lore nor by casuistry (or discussion) nor should he approach a house that is already besieged by hermits, brāhmaṇas, birds and dogs, beggars or others (Manu VI. 50-51). ### [v3.c46.21](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.kane-1930.v3.c46.21) (10) He should not eat food to satiety, but should eat only as much as is necessary to keep body and soul together and should not feel delight when he gets substantial alms nor feel dejected when he gets little or nothing (Manu VI. 57 and 59, Vas. X. 21,22 and 25, Yāj. III. 59). There is a famous verse 'an ascetic should take only eight morsels of food, a forest hermit 16, a householder 32 and a vedic student an unlimited number' (Āp. Dh. S. II. 4. 9. 13, Baud. Dh. S. II. 10. 68). ### [v3.c46.22](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.kane-1930.v3.c46.22) (11) He should hoard nothing and he should own or possess nothing except his tattered garments, his water jar, begging bowl (Manu VI. 43-44, Gaut. III. 10, Vas. X. 6). Devala quoted by the Mit. on Yāj. III. 58 declares that the ascetic should possess only a water-jar, a pavitra (cloth for straining water), pādukās, an āsana and a kanthā (wallet for protection from extreme cold). The Mahābhārata states that wearing ochre-coloured garments, shaving the head, and keeping a water jar and three staffs—these are only outward signs meant to secure food and do not lead to mokṣa2151b (dialogue of Janaka and Sulabhā). The Mahābhāṣya (vol. I. p. 365) also declares that a man is known to be a parivrājaka on seeing his three staffs. The Vāyupurāṇa I. 8 (quoted by Aparārka pp. 949–950) lays down what he should possess. He should take a staff of bamboo the outward surface of which is intact, which is not formidable and which has the \*parvans\* (the parts between the joints) of equal length, which is surrounded by a rope of cow's tail hair four aṅgulas in length and has three knots and which he holds in his right hand; he should have a śikya (loop on which to carry his jar or other things) made of kuśa or cotton or hemp threads or strings and of the form of a lotus and six muṣṭis (fists) in length; he should also have a water jar and a pātra (vessel or bowl for begging); he may have a seat (āsana) of wood square or round in size for sitting on or for washing his feet; he should have a loin-cloth to cover his private parts and a kanthā (patched garment or wallet) for protection against cold and he may have two pādukās (sandals). He should have only these and should not accumulate anything else. ### [v3.c46.23](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.kane-1930.v3.c46.23) 2151b काषायधारणं मौण्ड्यं त्रिविष्टब्धं कमण्डलुम् । लिङ्गान्यल्पार्थमेतानि न मोक्षायेति मे मतिः ॥ quoted from the महाभारत in the वेदान्तकल्पतरुपरिमल p. 639 on वेदान्तसूत्र III. 4. 18; त्रिविष्टब्धकं च दृष्ट्वा परिव्राजक इति । महाभाष्य vol. I. p. 365 (on पा. II. 1. 1). ### [v3.c46.24](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.kane-1930.v3.c46.24) (12) He should wear garments only for covering his private parts and may wear such garments as were worn by others and are used by him after washing (Gaut. III. 17–18), while Āp. Dh. S. (II. 9. 21. 11–12) states that he should wear clothes thrown away by others and that some say that he may be naked. Vas. (X. 9–11) says that he should cover his body with a piece of cloth (śāṭī) or with deer skin or with grass cut down for cows. Baud. Dh. S. II. 6. 24 requires that his garments should be ochre-coloured (quoted by Aparārka p. 962). ### [v3.c46.25](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.kane-1930.v3.c46.25) (13) The begging bowl and the plate from which the ascetic eats should be made of clay or wood or of a gourd, or of bamboo which should be without holes and he should not use metal vessels; and these vessels are to be cleaned with water and scoured with cow's hair (Manu VI. 53–54, Yāj. III. 60 and Laghu-Viṣṇu IV. 29–30). ### [v3.c46.26](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.kane-1930.v3.c46.26) (14) He should pare his nails, cut all his hair and beard (Manu VI. 52, Vas. Dh. S. X. 6); but Gaut. III. 21 appears to allow him an option viz. he may tonsure the whole head or keep only a top-knot. ### [v3.c46.27](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.kane-1930.v3.c46.27) (15) He should sleep on raised ground (\*sthaṇḍila\*), should feel no concern if he suffers from an illness, he should neither welcome death nor should he feel joy for continuing to live, but he should patiently wait till the time of death, as a servant waits till the time he is hired expires (Manu VI. 43 and 46). ### [v3.c46.28](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.kane-1930.v3.c46.28) (16) He should generally observe silence except when he repeats the Vedic texts learnt by him (Manu VI. 43, Gaut. III. 16, Baud. Dh. S. II. 10. 79, Āp. Dh. S. II. 9. 21. 10).²¹⁵² ### [v3.c46.29](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.kane-1930.v3.c46.29) ²¹⁵² अनग्निरनिकेतः स्यादशर्माशरणो मुनिः । स्वाध्याय एवोत्सृजमानो वाचं ग्रामे प्राणवृत्तिं प्रतिलभ्यानिहोऽनहङ्कश्चरेत् । आप. ध. सू. II. 9. 21. 10; the words स्वाध्याय ... ... वाचं are quoted by Śaṁkara in his bhāṣya on Bṛ. Up. III. 5. 1. ### [v3.c46.30](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.kane-1930.v3.c46.30) (17) He should be \*tridaṇḍī\* (carrying three staffs) according to Yāj. III. 58, while Manu VI. 52 simply says he should be \*daṇḍī\* (i. e. carrying a staff). The word \*daṇḍa\* is used in two senses, a staff of bamboo or restraint. Baud. Dh. S. II. 10. 53 gives an option that he may be \*ekadaṇḍī\* or a \*tridaṇḍī\* and also says that he should not cause harm to creatures by speech, actions and mind (II. 6. 25). Manu XII. 10, which is the same as Dakṣa (VII. 30), declares that that man is called \*tridaṇḍī\* who has restraint over his speech, mind and body. Dakṣa makes certain apt remarks 'Even gods who pre-eminently possess the \*sattvaguṇa\* are carried away by pleasures of sense; what of men? Therefore he who has given up his taste for pleasures should resort to \*daṇḍa\*; others cannot do it as they will be carried away by pleasures. An ascetic is not called \*tridaṇḍī\* by carrying bamboo staffs; he is \*tridaṇḍī\* who has the spiritual \*daṇḍa\* in him. Many people make their livelihood under the guise of (carrying) three \*daṇḍas\*' (VII. 27-31, quoted by Aparārka p. 953). Restraint of speech requires that he should observe silence, restraint of action that he should cause injury to no creature and restraint of mind that he should engage in \*prāṇāyāma\* and other yogic practices. Dakṣa himself says (I. 12-13) that the three staffs are the special outward sign of a \*yati\* as the girdle, deer-skin and staff are the outward signs of the vedic student or long nails and beard are \*indicia\* of the forest hermit. Laghu-Viṣṇu IV. 12 says he may be \*ekadaṇḍī\* or \*tridaṇḍī\*. The Jīvanamuktiviveka (p. 154) ### [v3.c46.31](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.kane-1930.v3.c46.31) quotes verses to the effect 'he who wields the staff of the knowledge of Reality is called ekadaṇḍi, while he who merely holds a stick in his hand without knowledge and eats everything (or has all sorts of desires) reaches terrible hells'. ### [v3.c46.32](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.kane-1930.v3.c46.32) (18) He should recite the vedic texts referring to yajñas or gods or texts of a metaphysical character found in the Vedānta (such as 'satyam jñānam-anantam brahma' in Tai. Up. 2. 1). Vide Manu VI. 83. ### [v3.c46.33](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.kane-1930.v3.c46.33) (19) He should walk after ascertaining with his eye that the ground he treads is pure, should drink water after passing it through a piece of cloth (in order to prevent ants &c. being taken in by him), he should utter words purified by truth and should do what his conscience (inner voice) decides to be right or proper (Manu VI. 46, Śaṅkha VII. 7, Viṣṇu Dh. S. 96. 14-17). ### [v3.c46.34](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.kane-1930.v3.c46.34) (20) In order to generate the feeling of vairāgya (desirelessness) and to curb his senses he should make his mind dwell upon the body as liable to disease and old age and as packed full of impurities; and should revolve in his mind the transitory nature of all mundane things, the trouble one has to undergo in body and mind from conception to death, the incessant round of births and deaths (Manu VI. 76-77, Yāj. III. 63-64, Viṣṇu Dh. S. 96. 25-42). ### [v3.c46.35](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.kane-1930.v3.c46.35) (21) Truthfulness, not depriving another of his possessions or his due, absence of wrath (even against one who harms), humility, purity (of body and food &c.), discrimination, steadiness of mind (in sorrow), quiescence (or restraint) of mind, restraint of senses, knowledge (of the self), these are the dharma of all varṇas (or these constitute the essence of dharma). And these have to be acquired most of all by the ascetic, since the outward signs, viz. the scanty clothing, the water jar &c. are not the real means of discharging the real duties of sannyāsa, as anyone can possess these outward signs. Vide Manu VI. 66, 92-94, Yāj. III. 65-66, Vas. X. 30, Baud. Dh. S. II. 10 55-56, Śānti. 111. 13-14, Vāyupurāṇa vol. I. 8. 176-178 (ten characteristics, five called vratas and five upavratas). ### [v3.c46.36](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.kane-1930.v3.c46.36) (22) He should endeavour to purify his mind by prāṇāyāma and other practices of yoga and thereby enable himself gradually to realize the Absolute and secure final release (Manu VI. 70-75, 81, Yāj. III. 62, 64). ### [v3.c46.37](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.kane-1930.v3.c46.37) In many works ascetics are divided into four classes. The Mahābhārata (Anuśāsana 141. 89) says that ascetics are of four sorts, kuṭīcaka, bahūdaka, haṁsa and paramahaṁsa, each later one being superior to each preceding one. Vaik. VIII. 9, Laghu-Viṣṇu IV. 14-23, Sūtasaṁhitā (Mānayogakhaṇḍa chap. 6), Bhikṣukopaniṣad, Prajāpati (quoted by Aparārka p. 952) define these four. They do not all agree. The kuṭīcaka, as the name itself implies, is one who resorts to sannyāsa in his own house or in a hut erected by his sons, begs food of his sons and relatives, wears the top-knot, the sacred thread, has the three staffs, carries a water-jar and stays in the same hut. The description of these four contained in Vaik.,²¹⁵³ being probably among the oldest available, is set out here. The kuṭīcakas stay in the hermitages of sages like Gautama, Bharadvāja, Yājñavalkya and Hārīta, take eight morsels of food every day, know the essence of the path of Yoga and hanker only after mokṣa (release). The bahūdakas have three staffs, the water-jar and wear garments dyed with ochre, beg for food at seven houses of sage-like brāhmaṇas or other well-conducted men but avoid taking flesh, salt and stale food. The haṁsas stay not more than one night in a village and not more than five nights in a town for alms or subsist on cow's urine or dung, or fast for a month or always perform the cāndrāyaṇa penance. Pitāmaha quoted in Sm. M. (varṇāśrama p. 184) states that the haṁsas carry only one daṇḍa, enter a village only for alms and otherwise stay under a tree or in a cave or on a river bank. ### [v3.c46.38](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.kane-1930.v3.c46.38) ²¹⁵³ तत्र कुटीचका गौतमभारद्वाजयाज्ञवल्क्यहारीतप्रभृतीनामाश्रमेष्वष्टौ ग्रासांश्चरन्तो योगमार्गतत्त्वज्ञा मोक्षमेव प्रार्थयन्ते। बहूदकास्त्रिदण्डकमण्डलुकाषायधातुवस्त्रग्रहणवेषधारिणो ब्रह्मर्षिगृहेषु चान्येषु साधुवृत्तेषु मांसलवणपर्युषितान्नं वर्जयन्तः सप्तागारेषु भैक्षं कृत्वा मोक्षमेव प्रार्थयन्ते। हंसा नाम ग्रामे चैकरात्रं नगरे पञ्चरात्रं वसन्तस्तदुपरि न वसन्तो गोमूत्रगोमयाहारिणो वा मासोपवासिनो वा नित्यचान्द्रायणव्रतिनो नित्यमुत्थानमेव प्रार्थयन्ते। परमहंसा नाम वृक्षमूले शून्यागारे श्मशाने वा वासिनः साम्बरा वा दिगम्बरा वा । न तेषां धर्माधर्मौ सत्यानृते शुच्यशुच्यपि द्वैतम्। सर्वसमाः सर्वात्मानः समलोष्टाश्मकाञ्चनाः सर्ववर्णेषु भैक्षाचरणं कुर्वन्ति। वैखानससूत्र VIII. 9. ### [v3.c46.39](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.kane-1930.v3.c46.39) The Paramahaṁsas always stay under a tree or in an uninhabited house or in a burial place and either wear a garment or are naked; they are beyond the pairs of dharma and adharma, truth and falsehood, purity and impurity. They treat all alike, they regard all as the Self, to them a clod of earth or gold is the same and they beg alms from persons of all varṇas. The description in the Bhikṣukopaniṣad is almost in the same words ### [v3.c46.40](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.kane-1930.v3.c46.40) \[^2152. a\]: चतुर्विधा भिक्षवस्ते कुटीचकबहूदकौ । हंसः परमहंसश्च यो यः पश्चात्स उत्तमः ॥ अनुशासनपर्व 141. 89 quoted by अपरार्क p. 95 and कुल्लूक on मनु VI. 86. अग्निपुराण 161. 18 and Laghu-Viṣṇu 4. 11 are the same. ### [v3.c46.41](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.kane-1930.v3.c46.41) and also contains the words of the Jābālopaniṣad as to Parama-haṁsas. It appears that long before the Āp. Dh. S. (II. 9. 21. 13-17) i. e. at least five or six centuries before Christ there were people who thought that an ascetic was beyond all \*vidhi\* (injunctions to do a thing) and niṣedha (prohibition), that he was above the ordinary rules about truthfulness or falsehood, that he should not care for pleasure or pain or for the study of the Vedas, or for this world or the next, he should simply seek to realize the Self, that when he realizes the Self all his sins, if any, would be liquidated thereby. Āp. combats these ideas by saying that such sentiments were opposed to the śāstras laying down rules about ascetics, that by realizing the Self, he cannot be free from the effects of what he does or the consequences of having a body. The sentiments which Āp. controverts arose from such passages as the one²¹⁵⁴ in the Bṛ. Up. IV. 4. 23 'This is the eternal greatness of the man who realizes \*brahma\* that by the actions he does, he does not add to it or detract from it. Therefore one should only know the real nature of that great-ness; he on knowing \*brahma\* is not affected by an evil action.' In the Kauṣītaki Bṛ. Up. III. 1 it is stated²¹⁵⁵ 'whoever realizes One (the Supreme Spirit), his worlds (i. e. his position) are not destroyed by any action of his, not even if he kills his parents, not even by theft nor by the murder of a learned brāhmaṇa.' These words are not to be taken literally, they are merely a boastful utterance (a prauḍhivāda), they are really laudatory statements emphasizing the supreme value of the realization of \*brahman\*. Similarly the Chān. Up. IV. 14. 3 says 'just as water does not stick to a lotus-leaf, so sinful actions do not cling to him who knows this'. In the same Upaniṣad (V. 2. 1) we read 'to him who knows this, nothing becomes unfit as food.' The Upaniṣads, however, generally lay great stress on moral virtues and emphasize that a high moral life is absolutely necessary for the seeker after spiritual truth. Vide Bṛ. Up. IV. 4. 23, Chān. Up. III. 14. 1, Kaṭha Up. ### [v3.c46.42](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.kane-1930.v3.c46.42) ²¹⁵⁴ एष नित्यो महिमा ब्राह्मणस्य न वर्धते कर्मणा नो कनीयान् । तस्यैव स्यात्पद-वित् तं विदित्वा न लिप्यते कर्मणा पापकेन ॥ इति । बृह. उ. IV. 4. 23, quoted in गौ. ध. सू. II. 6. 36 and II. 10. 7-9. ### [v3.c46.43](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.kane-1930.v3.c46.43) ²¹⁵⁵ स यो मां विजानीयान्नास्य केन च कर्मणा लोको मीयते न मातृवधेन न पितृवधेन न स्तेयेन न भ्रूणहत्यया । कौषी. उप. III. 1; यथा पुष्करपलाश आपो न श्लिष्यन्त एवमेवंविदि पापं कर्म न श्लिष्यत इति । छा. उप. IV. 14. 3; न ह वा एवंविदि किंचनानन्नं भवतीति । छा. उप. V. 2. 1; न च नियोगाभावात्सम्यग्दर्शिनो यथेष्टचेष्टाप्रसङ्गः । सर्वत्राभिमानस्यैव प्रवर्तकत्वादभिमानाभावाच्च सम्यग्दर्शिनः । शाङ्करभाष्य on वेदान्तसूत्र II. 3. 48. ### [v3.c46.44](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.kane-1930.v3.c46.44) I. 2. 23, I. 3. 8-9 and 12. The position of the Vedāntasūtra (in III. 4. 27-31) is that the seeker after eternal truth must be endowed with restraint of senses and quiescence of mind and he cannot act just as he pleases (ŚabdaścātoSkāmakāre) and spurn all rules of morality. Śaṁkarācārya on Vedānta-sūtra II. 3. 48 and other places makes this position perfectly clear. Viśvarūpa on Yāj. III. 66 states that even ascetics of the paramahaṁsa type are not allowed (by Yāj. and other sages) to behave as they please. The Par. M. (I. part 2, pp. 172-176) says that the paramahaṁsa should have only one daṇḍa and argues that paramahaṁsas are of two kinds viz. \*vidvat\* (those who have already realized \*brahman\*) and \*vividiṣu\* (those who are eager seekers after realization) and relies on Bṛ. Up. III. 5. 1 for the former and Bṛ. Up. IV. 4. 22 and Jābālopaniṣad for the latter. Yājñavalkya is an example of \*vidvat-sannyāsa\*, which leads to \*jīvanmukti\* (i. e. release even when the body still persists), while the latter (\*vividiṣā-sannyāsa\*) leads to release after the body is no more (i. e. videha-mukti). Vide Jīvan-muktiviveka p. 4 ff. ### [v3.c46.45](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.kane-1930.v3.c46.45) The Jābālopaniṣad²¹⁵⁶ (6) describes the state of paramahaṁsas at great length. They are sages like Saṁvartaka, Āruṇi, Śvetaketu, Durvāsas, Ṛbhu, Nidāgha, Jaḍabharata, Dattātreya, Raivataka; they do not exhibit any visible signs of their order or any visible rules of conduct; though they are really not mad they behave like one mad; they go out for alms only for keeping body and soul together; they are unaffected by acquisition or absence (of alms), they have no house but wander about and stay in a temple or on a heap of grass, on an ant-hill, or at the foot of a tree or on a river bank or in a cave, they have attachment for nothing, they are centred in contemplation of the One Spirit. According to Sūtasaṁhitā (II. 6. 3-10) it is only haṁsa and paramahaṁsa that give up śikhā and the sacred thread. ### [v3.c46.46](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.kane-1930.v3.c46.46) ²¹⁵⁶ तत्र परमहंसा नाम संवर्तकारुणि श्वेतकेतुदुर्वास-ऋभुनिदाघजडभरतदत्तात्रेय-रैवतकप्रभृतयोऽव्यक्तलिङ्गा अव्यक्ताचारा अनुन्मत्ता उन्मत्तवदाचरन्तः ... ... ... प्राणसंधारणार्थं यथोक्तकाले विमुक्तो भैक्षमाचरन् ... ... लाभालाभयोः समो भूत्वा शून्यागारदेवगृहतृणकूटवल्मीकवृक्षमूल ... ... स्थण्डिलेषु तेष्वनिकेतवास्यप्रयत्नो निर्ममः शुक्लध्यानपरायणो ... अशुभकर्मनिर्मूलनपरः संन्यासेन देहत्यागं करोति स परमहंसो नामं । जाबालोपनिषद् 6. The story of संवर्तक who was a great Yogin and wandered about naked is found in आश्वमेधिकपर्व chap. 6 and Śaṁkara on V. S. III. 4. 37 also refers to that story. The words तत्र परमहंसा नाम ... ... रैवतकप्रभृतयः are quoted by सायण on तै. आ. II. 11 and अव्यक्त ... ... उन्मत्तवदाचरन्तः are almost like वसिष्ठ X. 18-19. ### [v3.c46.47](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.kane-1930.v3.c46.47) The Sannyāsopaniṣad (13) adds two more varieties to the four enumerated above viz. 'turīyātīta' and 'avadhūta' and defines them as follows: 'turīyātīta' (one who is beyond the 4th stage viz. of paramahaṁsa) eats only fruits in the way cows take food (i. e. he does not hold them in his hands), if he takes cooked food then only from three houses, he wears no cloth, his body only continues to live (but he is not conscious of that fact), he deals with his body as if it were dead. The avadhūta is beyond all restrictions, he takes food from all varṇas except those who are charged with mortal sins or are \*patita\* (outcasts) and eats like an ajagara (a \*boa constrictor\*) i. e. lying down and opening only his mouth without any effort and is solely absorbed in the contemplation of the real nature of the Spirit. Medhātithi²¹⁵⁷ (on Manu VI. 32) is quite emphatic that sannyāsa does not consist in defying all the rules of śāstra, but in giving up the sentiment of egoism and of possessiveness and that it is not true to say that for the sannyāsin all rules (even of morality) are non-existent. ### [v3.c46.48](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.kane-1930.v3.c46.48) ²¹⁵⁷ अथाप्युच्येत कर्मसंन्यासिनो निवृत्तिमार्गावस्थायिनो नैव केचिच्छास्त्रार्थविधयः सन्तीति। नायं शास्त्रार्थः। अहंकारममकारत्याग एव संन्यासो वद्यते नाशेषशास्त्रार्थत्यागः। मेधा० on मनु VI. 32. ### [v3.c46.49](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.kane-1930.v3.c46.49) One important question on which opinion was sharply divided is whether sannyāsa was allowed to all the three varṇas or only to brāhmaṇas. Those who held that it was allowed only to brāhmaṇas argued as follows: In the Bṛ.²¹⁵⁸ Up. IV. 4. 22 we find the words 'this Self brāhmaṇas seek to know by the study of the Veda'; similarly Bṛ. Up. III. 5. 1 states 'after knowing this Self, brāhmaṇas give up the hankering after progeny, wealth and heavenly worlds and practise begging' and Muṇḍaka I. 2. 12 'closely examining the worlds that are the rewards of actions, a brāhmaṇa should come to be disgusted &c.'. Here, the word 'brāhmaṇa' being used, \*śruti\* indicates that brāhmaṇas alone can be sannyāsins. Manu (VI. 38) ### [v3.c46.50](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.kane-1930.v3.c46.50) ²¹⁵⁸ तमेतं वेदानुवचनेन ब्राह्मणा विविदिषन्ति । बृह. उ. IV. 4. 22; एतं वै तमात्मानं विदित्वा ब्राह्मणाः ... ... व्युत्थायाथ भिक्षाचर्यं चरन्ति। बृह. उ. III. 5. 1; परीक्ष्य लोकान् कर्मचितान् ब्राह्मणो निर्वेदमायान्नास्त्यकृतः कृतेन। मुण्डकोप. I. 2. 12. शङ्कर on बृह. उ. III. 5. 1 says 'ब्राह्मणानामेवाधिकारो व्युत्थाने अतो ब्राह्मणग्रहणम्' and on IV. 5. 15 (at end) says 'इतरवर्णापेक्षया वा पारिव्राज्यश्रुतिः। न हि क्षत्रियवैश्ययोः पारिव्राज्यप्रतिपत्तिरस्ति । तथा 'मन्त्रैर्वर्यस्त्वोदितो विधिः' 'एकाश्रम्यं त्वाचार्याः' इत्येवमादीनां क्षत्रियवैश्यापेक्षत्वम्।' ### [v3.c46.51](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.kane-1930.v3.c46.51) begins his description of the 4th stage with the words ‘a brāhmaṇa should leave his house and go into the world as a wanderer’ and winds up the chapter (VI. 97) by saying ‘I have declared this fourfold procedure in relation to brāhmaṇas’. Laghu-Viṣṇu V. 13 emphatically states that the ascetic order is meant only for brāhmaṇas and the other three āśramas are meant for all dvijas. Those who assert that all the regenerate classes can resort to sannyāsa hold that the word ‘brāhmaṇa’ in the upaniṣads is used only as illustrative (\*upalakṣaṇa\*) and not in an exclusive sense and that a Sūtrakāra (Kātyāyana) expressly says²¹⁵⁹ ‘the three varṇas after studying the Veda can pass through four āśramas’. The Jābālopaniṣad (4) ordains ‘whether a man has fulfilled his \*vratas\* or not, whether he has performed samāvartana (the ceremonial bath after studying Veda) or not, whether his fires (Vedic) have ceased or not he should resort to the wandering ascetic's life the very day on which he feels disgust with mundane affairs’.²¹⁶⁰ It thus allows even a brahmacārī to become an ascetic; a kṣatriya and vaiśya could be a brahmacārī. Yāj. III. 32 states that sannyāsa is a means of purification (of the mind) in the case of twice-born classes. Besides the only condition precedent mentioned by the Jābālopaniṣad for resorting to pravrajyā (ascetic life) is \*vairāgya\* and whoever feels the latter is authorized to betake himself to that stage. Yāj. III. 61 while laying down the observances of ascetics employs the word ‘dvijaḥ’ and not ‘brāhmaṇaḥ’. The Kūrma-purāṇa also says (Uttarārdha 28. 2) that a dvija should become an ascetic. ### [v3.c46.52](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.kane-1930.v3.c46.52) ²¹⁵⁹ त्रयाणां वर्णानां वेदमधीत्य चत्वार आश्रमा इति सूत्रकारवचनाच्च द्विजातिमात्रस्याधिकारमाहुः । मिता. on या. I. 56-57. The स्मृतिच० I. p. 65 states that the सूत्रकार is कात्यायन. ### [v3.c46.53](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.kane-1930.v3.c46.53) ²¹⁶⁰ पुमर्ब्रती वा व्रती वा स्नातको वाऽस्नातको वोत्सन्नाग्निको वा यदहरेव विरजेत्तदहरेव प्रव्रजेत् । जाबालोप. 4. ### [v3.c46.54](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.kane-1930.v3.c46.54) Both these opposing views are supported by the most famous authors. The first view that only brāhmaṇas can be sannyāsins is affirmed by the great Śaṁkarācārya in his bhāṣya on Bṛ. Up. III. 5. 1 and IV. 5. 15. It is most interesting and also very refreshing that Sureśvara²¹⁶¹ in his Vārtika on Śaṁkara's bhāṣya on Bṛ. Up. III. 5. 1 first explains the views of his guru, then enters the lists against his great master and combats his views with cogent arguments. Most of the medieval writers and works such as Medhātithi on Manu (VI. 97), the Mit., the Madanapārijāta (pp. 365-373), the Smṛtimuktāphala (Varṇāśrama p. 176) uphold the view that only brāhmaṇas can resort to the 4th āśrama, while a few works like the Smṛticandrikā (I. p. 65) support the second view. The position of Viśvarūpa²¹⁶² (on Yāj. III. 61) that only brāhmaṇas can resort to sannyāsa causes great perplexity. Sureśvara and Viśvarūpa are generally regarded as identical (vide H. D. vol. I. pp. 261-263 and Journal of the Andhra Historical Society for 1931, vol. V, p. 187). But Sureśvara holds the view that the word brāhmaṇa in the relevant texts is only illustrative. Therefore it follows that either Sureśvara changes his views or that Sureśvara and Viśvarūpa are not identical. Ānandagiri in his commentary on Sureśvara's Vārtika (p. 759) cites passages from the Mahābhārata (Ādi. 119) to establish that kṣatriyas could resort to sannyāsa.²¹⁶³ Śāntiparva (63. 16-21) allows sannyāsa to kings when their life is about to end. But the general words of Śānti 62. 2 appear to be in conflict with this.²¹⁶⁴ Kālidāsa states that Raghu became a \*yati\* when he grew old, installed his son on the throne and stayed in a cottage outside the capital and draws a very poetic and striking picture of the contrast between the old king turned ascetic and the prince become king (Raghu-vaṁśa VIII. 14 and 16). ### [v3.c46.55](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.kane-1930.v3.c46.55) ²¹⁶¹ त्रयाणामपि वर्णानां श्रुतौ संन्यासदर्शनात् । ब्राह्मणस्यैव संन्यास इति भाष्यं विरुध्यते ॥ बृह. उ. भाष्यवार्तिक p. 758, v. 1651; त्रयाणामविशेषेण संन्यासः श्रूयते श्रुतौ। यदोपलक्षणार्थं स्याद् ब्राह्मणग्रहणं तदा ॥ कर्माधिकारविच्छेद्वि ज्ञानं चेदभ्युपेयते । कुतोऽधिकारनियमो व्युत्थाने क्रियते बलात् ॥ प्रत्यग्याथात्म्यविज्ञानस्वभावश्चेत्समर्थ्यते । व्युत्थानं यस्य यस्य स्यात्स सं व्युत्थातुमर्हति । सुरेश्वरवार्तिक on बृह. उ. भाष्य (III. 5. 1); on the verse ‘त्रयाणाम्’, आनन्दगिरि remarks ‘भाष्याभिप्रायमुक्त्वा स्वाभिप्रायेण ब्राह्मणग्रहणस्यार्थमाह.’ ### [v3.c46.56](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.kane-1930.v3.c46.56) ²¹⁶² द्विजग्रहणं ब्राह्मणार्थं तेषामेव संन्यासोपदेशात् । विश्वरूप on या. III. 61. ### [v3.c46.57](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.kane-1930.v3.c46.57) ²¹⁶³ आदिपर्व 119. 6-9, 12, 25 (cr. ed. 110. 6-9 and 12, 24) मोक्षमेव व्यवस्यामि बन्धो हि व्यसनं महत् । ... ... तस्मादेकोऽहमेकाकी एकैकस्मिन्वनस्पतौ । चरन्भैक्षं मुनिर्मुण्डश्चरिष्याम्यभिमानवान् । पांसुना समवच्छन्नः शून्यागारकृतालयः । वृक्षमूलनिकेतो वा त्यक्तसर्वप्रियाप्रियः ॥ न शोचन्न प्रहृष्यंश्च तुल्यनिन्दात्मसंस्तुतिः । निराशीर्निर्नमत्कारो निर्द्वन्द्वो निष्परिग्रहः । ... ... एककालं चरन्भैक्षं कुलानि दश पञ्च वा । असम्भवे वा भैक्ष्यस्य चरन्नशनान्यापि ॥ 12 ...... पौरवृद्धाश्च ये तत्र निवसन्त्यस्मदाश्रयाः । प्रताद्य सर्वे वक्तव्याः पाण्डुः प्रव्रजितो वनम् ॥ 25. आनन्दगिरि (p. 759) quotes three of these. ### [v3.c46.58](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.kane-1930.v3.c46.58) ²¹⁶⁴ ब्राह्मणस्य तु चत्वारस्त्वाश्रमा विहिताः प्रभो । वर्णांस्त्वानुपूवर्येन्ते त्रयो भारतसत्तम ॥ शान्तिपर्व 62. 2. ### [v3.c46.59](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.kane-1930.v3.c46.59) So far as the smṛti texts and the medieval works are concerned a śūdra could not become a sannyāsin. The Śāntiparva (63. 11-14) is quite clear that a śūdra cannot be a bhikṣu. It also (18. 32)²¹⁶⁵ informs us that in its day many (probably including śūdras) assumed the outward signs of the 4th āśrama, got their heads tonsured and moved about in ochre-coloured garments (kāṣāya) for securing alms and gifts. But there are clear indications that śūdras did assume even in the times of ancient smṛtis the ascetic's garb and mode of life. The Viṣṇu Dh. S. V. 115 and Yāj. II. 241 (as read by Viśvarūpa) prescribe the fine of one hundred \*paṇas\* for one who gave a dinner to śūdra ascetics in rites for gods and the manes. When the Āśramavāsika-parva 26. 33 states that Vidura was buried as an ascetic, the commentator Nīlakaṇṭha remarks that this indicates that even śūdras can follow the mode of the ascetic life. ### [v3.c46.60](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.kane-1930.v3.c46.60) ²¹⁶⁵ परिव्रजन्ति दानार्थं मुण्डाः काषायवाससः । सिता बहुविधैः पाशैर्वृथावृन्तेभ्यमिवम् ॥ शान्तिपर्व 18. 32. ### [v3.c46.61](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.kane-1930.v3.c46.61) It appears that even women could in rare cases adopt the ascetic's life in ancient brāhmaṇic times. The Mit. on Yāj. III. 58 quotes a sūtra of Baud. (strīṇāṃ caike) to the effect that according to some ācāryas even women could adopt the ascetic mode of life. Patañjali in his Mahābhāṣya (vol. II. p. 100) speaks of a woman ascetic (parivrājikā) named Śaṅkarā. Yama quoted in the Sm. C. (on vyavahāra p. 254) declares 'neither in the Vedas nor in the dharmaśāstras is pravrajyā enjoined for women; (procreation and care of) progeny from a male of the same varṇa as herself is her proper \*dharma\*, this is the established rule.'²¹⁶⁶ The Sm. C. gives in a far-fetched way absence of sexual intercourse as the meaning of pravrajyā here. Atri (136-137) lays down that six actions by women and śūdras lead to sinfulness viz. japa, tapas (austerities), pravrajyā (ascetic's life), pilgrimages, endeavour to secure miraculous power by repeating spells, sole devotion to the worship of a goddess.²¹⁶⁷ In the drama called Mālavikāgnimitra Kālidāsa describes the Paṇḍitā Kauśikī as wearing the garb of an ascetic (in I. 14). It must be said that the general trend of Hinduism is against women adopting the homeless or ascetic life. The Jātakas (e. g. IV. 392) rarely speak of cāṇḍālas as adopting the homeless condition. ### [v3.c46.62](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.kane-1930.v3.c46.62) ²¹⁶⁶ यत्तु यमेनोक्तं स्त्रियाः श्रुतौ वा शास्त्रे वा प्रव्रज्या न विधीयते । प्रजा हि तस्याः स्वो धर्मः सवर्णादिति धारणा ॥ ...... प्रव्रज्या ब्रह्मचर्यमित्यर्थः । स्मृतिच. (व्यवहार p. 254). ### [v3.c46.63](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.kane-1930.v3.c46.63) ²¹⁶⁷ अतःपरं प्रवक्ष्यामि स्त्रीशूद्रपतनानि च । जपस्तपस्तीर्थयात्रा प्रव्रज्या मन्त्रसाधनम् । देवताराधनं चैव स्त्रीशूद्रपतनानि षट् । अत्रि 136-137. ### [v3.c46.64](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.kane-1930.v3.c46.64) \[^2165. a\]: भो भो राजन्न दग्धव्यमेतद्विदुरसंज्ञकम्। कलेवरमिहैवं ते धर्म एष सनातनः ॥ लोकाः साम्तानिका नाम भविष्यन्त्यस्य भारत । यतिधर्ममवाप्तोसौ नैष शोच्यः परंतप ॥ आश्रमवासिक 26. 32-33; शूद्रयोनौ जातानामपि यतिधर्मोस्तीति दर्शितम् । नीलकण्ठ. ### [v3.c46.65](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.kane-1930.v3.c46.65) When the question is asked whether śūdras or women could resort to sannyāsa there is likely to be some confusion. The word ‘sannyāsa’ conveys two ideas: abandonment of all actions (kāmya karma) that spring from the desire to secure some object or other and secondly, following a certain mode of life (āśrama) the outward signs of which are carrying a staff and the like and the entrance into which is preceded by the utterance of the \*praiṣa\*. The Jīvan-muktiviveka²¹⁶⁸ (p. 3) states that mokṣa (amṛtatva) depends upon \*tyāga\* (abandonment) as stated in the Kaivalyopaniṣad (2) ‘not by actions, nor by progeny nor by wealth, but by \*tyāga\* some attained mokṣa’ (release). For such abandonment even women and śūdras are eligible, the best example of a woman giving up everything being that of Maitreyī, the wife of Yājñavalkya, who plainly told the sage (Bṛ. Up. IV. 5. 3–4), ‘what have I to do with that which will not make me immortal (will not release me from \*saṁsāra\*)?’ The Bhagavad-gītā (18. 2) also declares that sannyāsa means the giving up of actions springing from desires (to secure certain objects). The Jīvan-muktiviveka further states that by resorting to the āśrama of sannyāsa the mother and the wife of a sannyāsin are supposed not to be born again as women (but they may be born as men). So women and śūdras may abandon all actions, though they could not adopt the peculiar ascetic mode of life with its outward symbols. According to Śrīkara’s bhāṣya on Vedāntasūtra I. 3. 34 the order of sannyāsa, the peculiar rules of which are recommended by Vedic texts, is only for the three varṇas, while mere nyāsa (abandonment of worldly pleasures and desires) can be resorted to by women, śūdras and mixed castes.²¹⁶⁹ ### [v3.c46.66](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.kane-1930.v3.c46.66) ²¹⁶⁸ अयं च वेदनहेतुः संन्यासः द्विविधः । जन्मापादककाम्यकर्मादित्यगमात्रकः प्रैषोच्चारणपूर्वकदण्डधारणाद्याश्रमरूपश्चेति । पुंजन्म लभते माता पत्नी च प्रैषमात्रतः । ब्रह्मनिष्ठः सुशीलश्च ज्ञानी चैतत्प्रभावतः । त्यागश्च तैत्तिरीयादौ श्रूयते न कर्मणा न प्रजया धनेन त्यागेनैके अमृतत्वमानशुः। अस्मिंश्च त्यागे स्त्रियोप्यधिक्रियन्ते। जीवन्मुक्तिविवेक (Adyar ed. 1935) p. 3. न कर्मणा ... ... नशुः is कैवल्योपनिषद् 2. ### [v3.c46.67](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.kane-1930.v3.c46.67) ²¹⁶⁹ ब्रह्मक्षत्रियवैश्यानां श्रौतसंन्यास इष्यते। शूद्रस्त्रीसङ्कराणां च न्यासप्रश्रौतसंज्ञिकम् । शिखासूत्रैकसंयुक्तं दण्डकाषायलाञ्छनम् । श्रौतसंन्यास इत्युक्तं व्यासस्य वचनं यथा ॥ श्रौताश्रौताविभेदेन संन्यासं द्विविधं स्मृतम् । कण्थाकाषायदण्डैकशिखासूत्रादिसंयुतम्। श्रौतसंन्यासमित्युक्तं साक्षान्मोक्षैकसाधनम् । quoted by श्रीकर in भाष्य on वेदान्तसूत्र III. 4. 22 (भावशब्दाच्च). ### [v3.c46.68](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.kane-1930.v3.c46.68) Some espoused the view that \*sannyāsa\* was meant only for the blind, the cripple and the impotent, that is, for persons who possessed no eligibility (\*adhikāra\*) for the performance of Vedic rites. Śaṁkarācārya in his bhāṣya on V. S. III. 4. 20 refutes the view that the passage of the Jābālopaniṣad (4) cited above relates to those who are not eligible for performing Vedic rites and establishes that that passage has in view the general prescription that there is a stage of life called pārivrājya (sannyāsa) meant for all that seek release from \*saṁsāra\*. Sureśvara in his Vārtika on Śaṁkara's Bṛ. Up. bhāṣya (p. 1908 v. 1144) also refutes the view.²¹⁷⁰ Medhātithi on Manu VI. 36 rejects this view (of some) by saying that the blind or cripple cannot follow the rules and practices (such as not staying in one village for more than one night) just as they cannot perform Vedic rites and hence it could not have been intended by the smṛti writers that sannyāsa was only for the blind and the cripple, nor can the impotent take to sannyāsa as no upanayana is performed in their case. The Mit. on Yāj. III. 56 follows Medhātithi. The Sm. Mu. (p. 173) and Yati-dh. (pp. 5-6) quote verses to the effect that 'the son of an apostate from sannyāsa, one having bad nails or black teeth, one emaciated by phthisis, one devoid of a limb—these do not deserve to resort to sannyāsa. Similarly those who are guilty of mortal sins or are suspected of them or are \*vrātyas\*, those who have left the path of truth, purity, sacrifices, \*vratas\*, tapas, charity, study of the Veda and homa should not be allowed to take up the ascetic life'. ### [v3.c46.69](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.kane-1930.v3.c46.69) ²¹⁷⁰ काणकुण्ठादिविषये यत्तु कैश्चित्प्रकल्प्यते । पारिव्राज्यं न तद्युक्तमननुष्ठेयरूपतः। बृह. उ. भाष्यवार्तिक p. 1908 verse 1144. ### [v3.c46.70](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.kane-1930.v3.c46.70) One of the principal rules for a \*yati\* was that he was to leave wife and home and never to think of sexual matters or to revert to the life of a house-holder. Atri²¹⁷¹ (VIII. 16 and 18) declares 'I see no penance (expiation) for that twice-born man, who, after having resorted to the duties of a celibate (sannyāsin), falls off from that stage; he is neither a dvija nor a śūdra, his children become cāṇḍālas called Vidūra'. Saṁkara on V. S. (III. 4. 42) explains that these words are only intended to emphasize the great effort required to remain celibate as a sannyāsin and that expiations are as a matter of fact prescribed for a \*bhikṣu\* having sexual intercourse. Dakṣa VII. 33 requires the king to brand on the forehead with the mark of dog's foot and banish from the kingdom a person who after becoming a sannyāsin does not abide by its rules (of celibacy &c.). It has been seen above that a man who falls away from the order of sannyāsins became a slave of the king for life (p. 185). Atri requires a sannyāsin not to stay even for a day in the place where live his father and mother, brother and sister, wife or son or daughter-in-law, his agnates or cognates or friends, or his daughter or her sons (Sm. Mu. p. 206). ### [v3.c46.71](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.kane-1930.v3.c46.71) ²¹⁷¹ आरूढो नैष्ठिकं धर्मं यस्तु प्रव्यवते द्विजः। प्रायश्चित्तं न पश्यामि येन शुद्ध्येत्स आत्महा॥ ... ... ये च प्रव्रजितापत्या या चैषां बीजसन्ततिः । विदूरा नाम चाण्डाला जायन्ते नात्र संशयः ॥ अत्रि VIII. 16 and 18. The first is quoted by शङ्कर on वेदान्तसूत्र III. 4. 41. ### [v3.c46.72](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.kane-1930.v3.c46.72) Originally these injunctions about complete restraint and abandonment of sexual life and total lack of property were faithfully followed by ascetics. The great ācārya Śaṁkara was a celibate all his life, but he is said to have established four \*maṭhas\* as stated above (p. 907) for the propagation of his doctrines and philosophy at Śṛṅgapura (modern Śṛṅgerī) and other places. Pious devotees bestowed considerable donations on these \*maṭhas\*. In course of time these \*maṭhas\* went on increasing and huge properties came to be under the control of the pontiffs of these several \*maṭhas\*. There arose ten orders of \*advaita sannyāsins\* alone²¹⁷² viz. tīrtha, āśrama, vana, araṇya, giri, parvata, sāgara, sarasvatī, bhāratī and purī. These ten orders are said to be the pupils in succession of the four disciples of Śaṁkara i. e. the first two of Padmapāda, the next two of Hastāmalaka, the next three of Troṭaka (or Toṭaka) and the last three of Sureśvara. The several \*maṭhas\* at Śṛṅgerī, Kāñcī, Kumbhakoṇam, Kuḍalgi, Saṅkeśvara, Śivagaṅgā have been quarrelling among themselves as to their jurisdictions²¹⁷³ and their rights to claim monetary payments from the people and to exercise spiritual authority in matters of expiations, excommunication &c. To support the claims of the various \*maṭhas\* pedigrees of teachers ²¹⁷⁴ and pupils appear to have been fabricated, no two of which agree \*in toto\* and in some of them Sureśvara is said to have lived for 700 or 800 years. The disciples of Rāmānuja and Madhva also have many maṭhas of their own. Vallabhācārya (one of the great ācāryas that interpreted the Vedāntasūtras) and his disciples do not accept the order of sannyāsa. According to them in the Kali age sannyāsa is forbidden for the seeker as it leads on to regret and worry2174a (if its rules are to be strictly observed) and that the parityāga (abandonment) that is the essence of sannyāsa does not consist in resorting to the 4th āśrama but in behaving in the way in which bhaktas (devotees) like Uddhava acted (vide Bhāgavata III. 4). Most of these maṭhas have large endowments or incomes which are spent in pomp and show (e. g. keeping golden images and paraphernalia). Very few of the heads are really learned even in ancient Sanskrit Literature in all its branches, they are impervious to modern tendencies and requirements, are obscurantists and generally oppose all ideas of reform. Only a very few maṭhas are presided over by persons who have been celibate throughout their lives. Most of them originally were householders and then took to sannyāsa. Besides the succession to the \*gādi\* is often a hole and corner affair. When the incumbent is about to die the influential and intriguing persons round him catch hold of some aspiring householder, make him a disciple of the dying sannyāsin and afterwards he is installed as the pontiff. ### [v3.c46.73](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.kane-1930.v3.c46.73) ²¹⁷² योगपट्टं च दातव्यं वेदान्ताभ्यासतः परम् । ततो नाम प्रकर्तव्यं गुरुणा सर्वसंमतम् ॥ तीर्थाश्रमवनारण्यगिरिपर्वतसागराः । सरस्वती भारती च पुरी नाम यतेर्दश । श्रीपादसंज्ञया वाक्यं (वाच्यं ?) नाम तस्य यथातथम् । अद्यारभ्य त्वया कार्यं दीक्षाव्याख्यादिकं सदा । योगपट्टोपि दातव्यः शिष्ये सम्यक् परीक्षते । quoted in स्मृतिमु. (वर्णाश्रम) p. 182 and यतिध. सं. p. 103. Vide Wilson's 'Religious Sects of the Hindus' in Works vol. I. (1861) p. 202, Dr. Farquhar's 'Outlines of the Religious Literature of India' (1920) p. 174 for the \*dasnamis\* (the ten appellations of advaita orders). ### [v3.c46.74](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.kane-1930.v3.c46.74) ²¹⁷³ Vide Rajvade, Khaṇḍa 21 (in Marathi) letter No. 190 at p. 240, dated śake 1763 where the claim is made by the Karavīra maṭha that its jurisdiction extends from the river Malāpahārī towards the north and that the Śṛṅgerī maṭha has no jurisdiction in that area. _First 73 of 171 passages. 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