Administration and Social Life under Vijayanagar c5: Chapter I

Administration and Social Life under Vijayanagar c5

Language: English

Chapter I

c5.1

The true history of an empire does not consist in the " endless procession of kingdoms and despots," the court intrigues, the interminable wars waged by the kings and the suppression of the rebellious feudatories, but is to be found in its administrative and social development. The study of the administrative institutions of an empire, the daily activities of the people, their religious and social observances, their literary activities and artistic attainments, is at least as important as its political history. To lay stress on the importance of the social history of an empire does not mean, however, that it must be studied at the expense of its political history. A study of political history is important, for, as Vincent Smith remarks, " the more attractive story of Indian thought as expressed in religion and philosophy, literature, art and science cannot be written intelligibly unless it is built on the solid foundation of dynastic history which alone can furnish the indispensable chronological basis."¹

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¹ Oxford History of India, Intro., p. xiii.

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In one sense the history of the world is the history of empires. The world has witnessed the rise, growth and decay of many empires. They have been reared by great statesmen and notable administrators, but soon after the removal of their strong arms there appear signs of decay in the empires and after a struggling existence for a few more years they finally disappear. Such have been the Babylonian, the Assyrian and the Egyptian empires. Coming nearer home, India was the scene of such empires as those of the Nandas, the Mauryas, the Guptas and Cōḷas, and of Vijayanagar. All the empires had only relatively short leases of life; but each of these has left some traces of its existence, and but for such contributions these empires would have been forgotten long ago.

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The pyramids which recall the Egyptian empire and its glory are not only the result of forced labour and prodigal expenditure but also a standing monument of what may seem to us to be misdirected energy. The Cōḷa empire has left behind it huge temples with their exquisitely carved sculptures. Great Tamil literary celebrities flourished under the Cōḷa kings and many of their works have come down to us. Likewise the Vijayanagar empire too has left permanent traces of its existence. There is no field of national life which Vijayanagar has not influenced. In the fields of religion, literature, arts and politics the Vijayanagar empire contributed much that is of permanent value.

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The empire itself was founded by a band of five brothers in the second quarter of the fourteenth century to check the onrush of Islam into South India. The invasions of Muhammad bin Tughlak and the subsequent troubles given by the Muhammadans to the Hindus of South India led to the rise of a feeling of political unity among them which ultimately resulted in the foundation of the Vijayanagar empire.²

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² About the origin of the city and the empire of Vijayanagar there has been a good deal of controversy among scholars. There are two schools of opinion on the question, one holding that the empire was of Karṇāṭaka origin and the other holding that it was of Teliṅgāṇa origin. See in this connection Sewell, *A Forgotten Empire*, p. 23; Rice, *Epigraphia Carnatica*, Vol. vi, Intro., p. 21; S. K. Aiyangar, *South India under the Muhammadan Invaders*, pp. 171 and 181-83; H. Krishna Śāstri, *A.S.R.*, 1907-08, p. 236; 1909-10, p. 160; T. A. Gopinatha Rao, *Epigraphia Indica*, Vol. xv, p. 84; R. Satyanatha Ayyar, *The Nayaks of Madura*, pp. 3-4; Rev. H. Heras, *The Beginnings of Vijayanagara*, pp. 1-43; Dr. B. A. Saletore, *Social and Political Life in the Vijayanagara Empire*, Vol. I, pp. 82-112; S. Srikantaya, *Founders of Vijayanagara*, p. 3. Contra Dr. N. Venkata Ramanayya, *Kampili and Vijayanagara*, pp. 21-33; *Vijayanagara The Origin of the City and the Empire*, pp. 3-52. While all other scholars are agreed on the point that the empire was founded about the year 1336 Dr. Saletore argues that it was founded only ten years later, in 1346: op. cit., pp. 82-112.

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Harihara, Kampa, Bukka, Mārappa and Muddappa, the founders of the empire, expanded the empire on all sides and ruled each over a portion of it. Kumāra Kampaṇa, the son of Bukka, extended the empire in the south as far as Madura, thus putting an end to the Sultanate of Madura. During the reign of Bukka I the Bahmani kingdom was founded in A.D. 1347 by Ḥasan Gangu, just north of the river Kṛṣṇā. Since then both the Muhammadan Sultans of the north and the Hindu Rāyas of the south waged many wars. Bukka was succeeded by Harihara II who died in A.D. 1404. After a short dispute over the succession Dēva Rāya I ascended the throne in A.D. 1406 and ruled till about 1422 and was succeeded by his son Vijaya Rāya³ who occupied the throne for a short time. His son Dēva Rāya II who succeeded him was the most distinguished ruler of the first dynasty of the Vijayanagar sovereigns. He suffered heavy losses in men and money on account of reverses at the hands of the Bahmani Sultans, who massacred the Hindu women and children without mercy and took delight in shedding Hindu blood. Hence Dēva Rāya II, who realised the inferiority of the Hindu forces, and was impressed with the superiority of the Muhammadan cavalry, introduced reforms in the organization of his army. His reign is also important for the literary celebrities who lived in his court, and the foreign travellers Nicolo dei Conti, an Italian, and Abdur Razāk, a Persian, who visited his court. Dēva Rāya II was succeeded successively by Mallikārjuna⁴ and Virūpākṣa who were comparatively weak rulers.

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³ Recent epigraphical evidence shows that Dēva Rāya I was succeeded by his son Rāmacandra (*M.E.R.*, 317 of 1931-32; Rep., para 35).—Ed.

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⁴ Epigraphical evidence indicates that the immediate successor of Dēva Rāya II was Vijaya Rāya II (M.E.R., 1906-07, para 55).—Ed.

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The weak rule of the two sovereigns facilitated the rise into prominence of Sāḷuva Narasiṃha, who finally usurped the throne in A.D. 1485 and had himself crowned king. He was an efficient ruler, and set himself to the reorganisation of the administration of the empire, and succeeded in his arduous task. He was followed by Immaḍi Narasiṃha who had as his ministers successively Narasā Nāyaka and Vira Narasiṃha. The latter usurped the throne in A.D. 1507, and after a short reign of three years bequeathed the throne to his step-brother Kṛṣṇadēva Rāya, perhaps the greatest and the most distinguished of the Vijayanagar kings.

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Kṛṣṇadēva Rāya began his reign with a determination to retrieve the losses in the territories of his kingdom, and pursued his object with success. He put down the rebellious feudatories within his own empire and defeated and conquered Pratāparudra Gajapati, the ruler of Orissa. He humbled the pride of the Bijapur Sultan and conquered him. His empire extended from the banks of the river Kṛṣṇā in the north to Cape Comorin in the south. He was an enlightened ruler, and during his time the administration of the empire was systematised and perfected. He was a cultured ruler, and a number of scholars adorned his court. He was himself the author of many works in Telugu and Sanskrit. Like many oriental sovereigns he was tolerant of all religious sects though he was himself a staunch Vaiṣṇava. It was during his time that the Portuguese established their power in certain portions of western India.

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Kṛṣṇa Rāya was succeeded on the throne by his step-brother Acyuta Rāya who in spite of his numerous difficulties ruled over the empire with success. He left his throne to his son Veṅkaṭa who lost his life in a palace revolution after a brief rule for a few months after his accession. Salakarāju Tirumala seized the throne; but he was slain by Rāmarāja, a son-in-law of Kṛṣṇadēva Rāya and a great ruler. As a result of this, Acyuta’s nephew Sadāśiva ascended the throne. He was a weak ruler and the one dominating personality who swayed the destinies of the empire during his time was Rāma Rāja. He set his Muhammadan neighbours one against the other and crippled their power to a considerable extent. But they soon realised the folly of their disunion, formed a grand alliance among themselves, and inflicted a crushing defeat on the Hindus of the south led by Rāma Rāja and his brothers at the historic battle of Raksas Tangdi in A.D. 1565. Rāma Rāja himself died in the battle. The city of Vijayanagar was partially destroyed by the Muhammadans. But soon order was restored in South India and the Hindu empire regained its original position and power.

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Though Sadāśiva was still alive, Tirumala proclaimed himself emperor and ascended the throne in A.D. 1570. He was the first ruler of the Aravīḍu line of kings. He restored order in the empire. He was succeeded in order by his sons, Srī Raṅga I and Veṅkaṭa II. Veṅkaṭa was the greatest prince of the Aravīḍu line. He changed his capital to Candragiri and from there ruled his empire. He was a patron of scholars. During his time the Portuguese gained great influence not only in his court but also in the whole of South India. He died in 1614.

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The empire after his death passed on to the hands of Rāma, Peda Veṅkaṭa III and Śrī Raṅga III. This last ruler, though himself efficient and capable of ruling a vast empire, could not succeed in his work, for the circumstances under which he came to power were not favourable for him to achieve his object of unifying the empire and reviving the glories of Vijayanagar. His reign is a record of the treachery of his feudatories and the internecine warfare in his empire. The Nāyaks of Madura and Tanjore, and the Oḍeyārs of Mysore became too powerful for him. The intervention of the Bijapur Sultans in South Indian affairs made his task all the more difficult. After him the empire dwindled in size and importance, and it was finally destroyed by Tippu Sultan who set fire to Anegondi in 1786.

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It is generally said that in mediaeval Europe feudalism was a necessity of the times. Similarly the particular form of government that obtained in Vijayanagar was a necessity of the period. The very fact that in the Vijayanagar empire there existed, side by side with one another, various heterogeneous elements, diverse interests and communities, necessitated a monarchical form of government. The king stood out as the symbol of unity in the empire. He was not an absolute or autocratic ruler, for his powers were limited by certain checks and balances of a more or less conventional and customary character. Custom ruled in many cases in the levy of taxes. Different methods were adopted for the collection of the revenues of the government, and in certain cases the taxes were farmed out to bidders. Different methods were adopted for the recruitment to the army, and the king depended largely on feudal levies in times of war. The administration of justice was organised in such a way as to suit the convenience of the people. Disputes were decided in a majority of cases by arbitration, or cases were tried locally by the local people. The provincial administration was organised in a way which satisfied the requirements of the age. In many cases the officers of government were remunerated by assignments of the income due to the government. In the local areas, the old village assemblies actively functioned and did very useful local service. The temple was a centre of cultural and economic activity in the local areas, and the guilds were other local bodies that played a prominent part in the administration. Thus these aspects of the polity and administration of the Vijayanagar empire deserve careful study.

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The fourteenth and fifteenth centuries constituted a period of great religious unrest in South India owing to the Muhammadan invasions. The Vijayanagar empire which was founded to protect the Hindu civilization not only stood as a bulwark against Muhammadan aggressions but also encouraged the growth of certain religious cults by creating the peaceful atmosphere necessary for their development. One of such cults was the Viṭhoba cult which is based on *bhakti*. The renaissance in the field of religion and philosophy also led to the coming into prominence of great philosophical disputants and thinkers like Vidyāraṇya, Akṣobhya Muni, Vēdānta Dēśika, Vyāsarāya Tīrtha, Appayya Dīkṣita and Tātācārya. The period saw the rise of certain popular religious movements like Teṅgalai Vaiṣṇavism, which were more liberal in character. Though these religious movements split the Hindu society into many camps they did the signal service of rallying them against the onslaughts of Islam.

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The spread of the power of Vijayanagar over the whole of South India caused the migration of the people from one part of the peninsula to the other. The patronage which the Rāyas extended to learned men and religious teachers, especially the Vaiṣṇavas, attracted a large number of Brahmans from the south, who settled down permanently in the Telugu and Kanarese districts. Thither also came a good number of Śūdras who entered the civil service of the government, besides merchants, particularly the Beris, who flocked to villages and towns for purposes of trade. Similarly, there was an influx of the Telugu and the Kanarese people into the Tamil districts. The Rāyas bestowed estates on their dependents, who settled down all over the Tamil country with their followers. The natural consequence of this intermigration was the transfer of certain castes into a new environment. Thus, the Balijas, Kammas, Reḍḍis and the various sects of the Telugu speaking Brahmans who were alien elements in the social structure of the Tamil country found their way into it, and got themselves acclimatised to their new environment in course of time. In the same manner, the Piḷḷais, the Mudaliārs, the Arava Vēlamas, and the different sects of the Tamil-speaking Brahmans left their native land and made the northern districts of the empire their permanent abode.

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Literature received the fostering care of the Rāyas of Vijayanagar. The sovereigns extended their patronage to Sanskrit and Telugu literature. According to tradition the empire itself was founded under the auspices of the great sage and scholar, Vidyāraṇya. Sāyaṇa, who lived in the time of Harihara I, Bukka I, and Harihara II, earned undying celebrity as the commentator of the Vedas. The court of almost every Vijayanagar king was adorned by a number of scholars. Kṛṣṇadēva Rāya was, as already noted, himself a great scholar and author of Telugu and Sanskrit works. In his court flourished great and notable scholars like Allasāni Peddana, Nandi (Mukku) Timmana and others. Kanarese literature also flourished in that age; but it does not seem to have received such great patronage as Sanskrit or Telugu got under the Vijayanagar kings.

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The contribution of Vijayanagar to art and architecture was not inconsiderable. These kings were great builders. During their time were constructed many strategical fortresses, big palaces, spacious temples with huge towers rising into the sky, remarkable not only for the massiveness of their size but also for the details of decoration, sculpture and painting they contain. Many of these works are perfect specimens of art. The scenes from the Rāmāyaṇa painted on the walls of the inner prākāra of the Rāmasvāmi temple at Kumbakōṇam in the Tanjore district are sure to evoke the unstinted admiration of any person who visits the place. The most striking of the monuments are the romantic ruins of Hampi now “an open air museum of Hindu monuments”, which recall to mind the glories of what was once a great and flourishing city. There are also many other monuments which stand to this day, in different degrees of dilapidation, to speak of the wealth and prosperity of the empire of Vijayanagar. A few of them are the forts of Penugoṇḍa, Candragiri, Vellore and Jiñji, the thousand and hundred-pillared maṇṭapas at Kāḷahasti, Tiruvaṇṇāmalai, the towers at Cidambaram, Tiruvaṇṇāmalai and Madura, and the huge palaces and halls at the last mentioned place. The accounts of the contemporary travellers like Abdur Razāk and Paes which describe the paintings and sculpture at the imperial court of Vijayanagar clearly show that the allied arts of sculpture and painting had attained a high degree of perfection under the Rāyas.

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Unlike the earlier invaders of India like the Greeks, Bactrians and Huns who mingled freely with the indigenous population and became absorbed into them, the Muhammadans preferred to remain a distinct community, and tried to preserve their purity and individuality; but they have influenced Indian society and institutions, and similarly have been influenced by them. The introduction of the pointed arch and the construction of maṇṭapas with barrel-shaped roofs, instead of the flat terrace, which was a distinct characteristic of the Dravidian style of architecture, was due largely to the influence of the Muhammadan school of art and architecture. Dēva Rāya II copied the example of the Muhammadans for the improvement of the organization of his army.

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Thus the administrative and social history of Vijayanagar is of great interest. South India has not, however, been islamised to the same extent to which North India has been, and it continues to preserve the old form of Hinduism intact without allowing alien influences to act on it to any very large extent. This preservation of Hindu religion, literature and art, which are peculiar to South India and “differ widely from the more familiar forms of the north,” has been due to the Vijayanagar empire. Owing to the constant menace of Muhammadan invasions, Hindu society had to be reorganised and a certain amount of hardening and defining of the rights and duties of the various castes and communities of the Hindu society was felt necessary. As Dr. S. K. Aiyangar truly says, “it may safely be said that for good and for evil the present day Hinduism of South India retains the form that it received under Vijayanagar which ought to be given the credit of having preserved Hinduism such as it is.”⁵