Administration and Social Life under Vijayanagar c7.s3: Section VI. Expenditure
Administration and Social Life under Vijayanagar c7.s3
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Section VI. Expenditure
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In all Hindu empires the cash expenditure of the government on account of administration was considerably small. The administration was conducted on traditional lines, and there was no necessity for the payment of all the officers of the state. They were generally paid in the shape of grants of *sarvamānyams* which they enjoyed without paying tax to the government or certain taxes were made over to them. The humbler servants of the government were granted likewise service *ināms* and *mānyams* which they also enjoyed tax-free as remuneration for their services. The Vijayanagar kings did not try to maintain a huge naval force, which, if they had organised, would have consumed a large portion of their financial resources. The right of policing (*pāḍikāval*)
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was largely leased out to the local people, who vied with one another for securing that right for themselves. This to some extent relieved the government of its responsibility for the maintenance of peace and order in the country, and of an enormous expenditure on that account. Justice too was not always the concern of the state, at least in practice. Disputes, both civil and criminal, were generally decided locally by the caste men and the village elders, and seldom reached the royal court. Hence there was no regular gradation of courts of justice maintained at the expense of the government. Unlike in the modern day, in the mediaeval period education was largely a private concern. The state did not take any elaborate measures for the spread of education among the people. Further a liberal education was not a necessity in those days, for the choice of occupation was dependent on the caste. Thus the government had no large expenditure on these accounts.
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A few items of expenditure, specially the military which swallowed a large portion of the revenue, deserve consideration. In the Āmuktamālyada we read: "The expenditure of money which is utilised in buying elephants and horses, in feeding them, in maintaining soldiers, in the worship of Gods and Brahmans and in one's own enjoyment can never be called an expenditure."³³⁹ What with the constant menace of the wars with the Bahmani Sultans, what with the insubordination and rebellions of refractory feudal chiefs within the dominions, and what with the expansion of the empire on all sides, the Vijayanagar government had a large military expenditure. Nuniz notes that "of these sixty lakhs that the king has of revenue every year, he does not enjoy a larger sum than twenty-five lakhs. for the rest is spent on his horses and elephants and foot soldiers and cavalry whose cost he defrays."³⁴⁰ Kṛṣṇadēva Rāya for instance purchased horses from the Arabs at competitive prices to strengthen his army. The Vijayanagar kings had a standing army at the capital ever ready for wars. It is not difficult to imagine what a large amount of recurring expenditure this item alone would have demanded. But it is interesting to note here in passing that this standing army of the kings was only a fraction of the huge armies that were collected at times of war, for the latter were composed not only of this regular standing army but also of the feudal levies.
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³³⁹ Canto IV. v 262.
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³⁴⁰ Sewell. op. cit., pp. 373-4.
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The next large item of public expenditure was that on the public endowments and charities. No temple escaped the attention of the kings, and no public institution failed to get their fostering care. Inscriptions are scattered throughout South India which record the benefactions of the Vijayanagar kings. They constructed new temples, renovated a large number of old ones, renewed grants already made, and instituted festivals and worship in temples. Many a time taxes were remitted in favour of temples for their maintenance and repair. According to the accounts of Nuniz, Mallikārjuna granted to the pagodas a fifth part of the revenue of his kingdom.³⁴¹ Though the kings themselves were not always as learned as Kṛṣṇadēva Rāya, they honoured learning and learned men. It was in the royal courts that scholars of different schools of thought met together to discuss their views on abstruse philosophical subjects, and held controversies. The ruling kings took interest in such discussions and honoured the scholars by making them rich presents and granting tax-free villages.
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³⁴¹ Ibid., p. 304.
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The next charge on the Vijayanagar finances was in the direction of irrigation and public works. The period of the Vijayanagar supremacy was marked by the construction of tanks and lakes, and the making of large irrigation works for agricultural purposes. The kings prided themselves in undertaking and executing these great works of public utility. The allied arts of architecture, sculpture and painting also received great encouragement under them.
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The harem of the kings consumed a considerable portion of the revenues of the state. Almost all the foreign travellers who visited Vijayanagar did not fail to be struck by the number and riches of the harem. We have got exaggerated accounts about the number of women in the palace of the king. But there is no denying the fact that the cost of maintaining such a harem must have been enormous. Further the age was one of pageantry and show. Much money was wasted in dress, in drinks, and on women and on much other unproductive expenditure to please the tastes of the kings, which resulted in a drain on the public exchequer.
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In modern times, with the advance made in the monetary systems and the development of banking facilities, the need for hoarding the precious metals, especially the yellow one, is rapidly declining. But in ancient and mediaeval days the monetary systems were still in a rude stage. Hence not only the people in those days, but also the government, hoarded the precious metals. Kṛṣṇadēva Rāya in his Āmuktamālyada divides the king's income into four parts, and says that one part should be used for extensive benefactions and for enjoyment, two parts for the maintenance of a strong army and one part added to the treasury.³⁴² That the Vijayanagar kings hoarded a large quantity of treasure is also testified to by Paes who describes the way in which the kings hoarded wealth. He says: "The previous kings of this place for many years past have held it a custom to maintain a treasury, which treasury, after the death of each, is kept locked and sealed in such a way that it cannot be seen by any one, nor opened, nor do the kings who succeed to the kingdom open them or see what is in them. They are not opened except when the kings have great need, and thus the kingdom has great supplies to meet its needs. This king (Kṛṣṇadēva Rāya) has made his treasury different from those of the previous kings, and he puts in it every year ten million pardaos without taking from them one pardao more than for the expenses of his house. The rest remains for him, over and above these expenses and of the expenses in the houses of his wives, of whom I have already told you that he keeps near him 12,000 women; from this you will be able to judge how great is the richness of this kingdom and how great the treasure that this king has amassed."³⁴³ The hoarding of money was a necessity in those days to meet large unexpected demands when wars broke out. Occasionally measures had to be undertaken to alleviate the sufferings of the people during bad times. Thus this money was spent only on national purposes.
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³⁴² Canto IV, v. 238.
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³⁴³ Sewell, op. cit., p. 282.
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There seem to have been two other treasuries besides this one where coins and money were hoarded. One was the Golden Treasury where perhaps gold was accumulated³⁴⁴ and the other was the Diamond Treasury³⁴⁵ where diamonds were accumulated.
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³⁴⁴ 380 of 1918; E.C., VIII, Tl. 172.
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³⁴⁵ Sewell, op. cit., p. 389; 387 of 1920.
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The next large item of public expenditure was that on the public endowments and charities. No temple escaped the attention of the kings, and no public institution failed to get their fostering care. Inscriptions are scattered throughout South India which record the benefactions of the Vijayanagar kings. They constructed new temples, renovated a large number of old ones, renewed grants already made, and instituted festivals and worship in temples. Many a time taxes were remitted in favour of temples for their maintenance and repair. According to the accounts of Nuniz, Mallikārjuna granted to the pagodas a fifth part of the revenue of his kingdom.³⁴¹ Though the kings themselves were not always as learned as Kṛṣṇadēva Rāya, they honoured learning and learned men. It was in the royal courts that scholars of different schools of thought met together to discuss their views on abstruse philosophical subjects, and held controversies. The ruling kings took interest in such discussions and honoured the scholars by making them rich presents and granting tax-free villages.
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³⁴¹ Ibid., p. 304.
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The next charge on the Vijayanagar finances was in the direction of irrigation and public works. The period of the Vijayanagar supremacy was marked by the construction of tanks and lakes, and the making of large irrigation works for agricultural purposes. The kings prided themselves in undertaking and executing these great works of public utility. The allied arts of architecture, sculpture and painting also received great encouragement under them.
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The harem of the kings consumed a considerable portion of the revenues of the state. Almost all the foreign travellers who visited Vijayanagar did not fail to be struck by the number and riches of the harem. We have got exaggerated accounts about the number of women in the palace of the king. But there is no denying the fact that the cost of maintaining such a harem must have been enormous. Further the age was one of pageantry and show. Much money was wasted in dress, in drinks, and on women and on much other unproductive expenditure to please the tastes of the kings, which resulted in a drain on the public exchequer.
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In modern times, with the advance made in the monetary systems and the development of banking facilities, the need for hoarding the precious metals, especially the yellow one, is rapidly declining. But in ancient and mediaeval days the monetary systems were still in a rude stage. Hence not only the people in those days, but also the government, hoarded the precious metals. Kṛṣṇadēva Rāya in his *Amuktamālyada* divides the king's income into four parts, and says that one part should be used for extensive benefactions and for enjoyment, two parts for the maintenance of a strong army and one part added to the treasury.³⁴² That the Vijayanagar kings hoarded a large quantity of treasure is also testified to by Paes who describes the way in which the kings hoarded wealth. He says: "The previous kings of this place for many years past have held it a custom to maintain a treasury, which treasury, after the death of each, is kept locked and sealed in such a way that it cannot be seen by any one, nor opened, nor do the kings who succeed to the kingdom open them or see what is in them. They are not opened except when the kings have great need, and thus the kingdom has great supplies to meet its needs. This king (Kṛṣṇadēva Rāya) has made his treasury different from those of the previous kings, and he puts in it every year ten million *pardaos* without taking from them one *pardao* more than for the expenses of his house. The rest remains for him, over and above these expenses and of the expenses in the houses of his wives, of whom I have already told you that he keeps near him 12,000 women; from this you will be able to judge how great is the richness of this kingdom and how great the treasure that this king has amassed."³⁴³ The hoarding of money was a necessity in those days to meet large unexpected demands when wars broke out. Occasionally measures had to be undertaken to alleviate the sufferings of the people during bad times. Thus this money was spent only on national purposes.
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³⁴² Canto IV, v. 238.
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³⁴³ Sewell, op. cit., p. 282.
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There seem to have been two other treasuries besides this one where coins and money were hoarded. One was the Golden Treasury where perhaps gold was accumulated³⁴⁴ and the other was the Diamond Treasury³⁴⁵ where diamonds were accumulated.
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³⁴⁴ 380 of 1918 : E.C., VIII, Tl. 172.
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³⁴⁵ Sewell, op. cit., p. 389 ; 387 of 1920.
Cites (2)
- Āmuktamālyada — Kṛṣṇadevarāya 1515, Telugu
- Epigraphia Carnatica