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Pre-Buddhist India: A Political, Administrative, Economic, Social and Geographical Survey of Ancient India Based Mainly on the Jataka Stories c6.s1.t2: Wickedness of Woman

Pre-Buddhist India: A Political, Administrative, Economic, Social and Geographical Survey of Ancient India Based Mainly on the Jātaka Stories c6.s1.t2

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English

Contents

Wickedness of Woman

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Once a poor man's wife insists upon going to the *Kattikā* festival putting on a safflower-coloured cloth, while the husband is too poor to get it. But the wife is obstinate, and does not hear her husband's pleadings for poverty, and so causes her husband to risk his life in stealing safflower from the king's conservatories. The man is caught, hauled up and impaled alive: his last words are: "Alas! I shall miss going to the festival with you arrayed in safflower-coloured cloth, with your arms twined round my neck."⁵ Another woman feigns sickness like the present day, of how strife and discontent prevail in a household owing to the young wife’s treachery. Poor Kaccānī! Old and feeble and innocent, she is driven away from the house by her own son through ear-poisoning by the young wife who does not like to wait upon her old grand-mother¹ as the one, noticed before,² who does not like the presence of the grand-father in her house. Once a wife is tired of walking and is carried on shoulder by her husband. In course of the journey, she is so thirsty that the man at last strikes his right knee from which she drinks blood, and thus quenches her thirst. Afterwards they live on the bank of a river. Once the husband notices a robber with hands, feet, nose and ears cut off, drifting down the stream with loud wailing. The husband takes pity, brings him to his hut, and cures him. Now the wife falls in love with this stranger, and at last gets rid of her husband.³ What an appalling instance of an ungrateful and treacherous wife! Numerous are the instances of this nature in our stories. Nothing is spared while hurling a bitter invective against woman-kind. And the harsh reflections so frequently to be met with! The ways of women are difficult to be understood : they are as perplexing as the course of fish in the sea.⁴ “Frailties, thy name is woman” is the experience or rather the opinion, expressed centuries before the Great English Poet, and in a land quite different from his. Fickleness of mind is an inborn instinct of a woman. Her mind is as changing as that of shifty monkeys, as the shade cast by trees on height or depth around, and as the tire of wheel revolving swift without a pause or rest.⁵ Truthfulness is scarcely seen (saccam tesam sudullabham).⁶ Like fuel burning in a blazing fire, they burn a man whom they serve for gold or for desire.⁷ The selfish, possessive and doubtful nature of a woman is illustrated by the words of the wife of a fowler: ‘day by day you return empty-handed; I suppose you’ve got a second establishment to keep up elsewhere.’⁸ Similarly a fish, while caught in a net and at the fisherman’s fire, says :

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⁵ J., I, pp. 499-500 and G. 143.

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⁶ J., I pp. 463-4.

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¹ J., III, pp. 424-7 GG. 1-8.

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² J., IV, pp. 45-9.

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³ J., II, pp. 115-8.

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⁴ J., V, p. 94-G. 295. ‘Thīnaṃ bhāvo durājāno macchasevodake gatan.’

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⁵ J., V, p. 445-G 314; The great Russian poet Pushkin employs another simile, less striking than that of the Jātaka poet, in his ‘Gypsies’: “As the moon passes by many a cloud and sheds her loveliness on all of them, but remains with none, so is woman and her love.” Quoted Hindu Tales, p. 204 n.

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⁶ J., I, p. 295-G ? V, pp. 94-G. 295; 448. G. 329.

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⁷ J., II, p. 330-G. 39.

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⁸ J., I, p. 209. ‘Tvaṃ divase divase tucchahattho agacchasi, aññaṃ pi te bahi positabbaṭṭhā-naṃ atthi maññe.’

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‘Tis not the cold, the heat, or wounding net;
‘Tis but the fear my darling wife should think
Another’s love has lured her spouse away.’⁹

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⁹ J., I, p. 211-G. 33; contrast the words of Saṃbulā at J., V, p. 91-G 282.

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The poor man’s wife who wanted a safflower-coloured cloth said to her husband: ‘If I can’t have them dyed with safflower, I don’t want to go at all. Get some other woman to go at the festival with you.’¹⁰ It is once stated that a woman cannot be satisfied with three things : intercourse, adornment and child-bearing.¹ Insatiable and incurable is lust in a woman. So passionate are women, that no guard can keep them right. A daughter stood holding her father's hands, and escaped with her paramour without her father's knowledge.² A girl was brought up entirely by women from her birth. She saw no man other than her husband. She was kept in a seven-storied house with a strong guard of women only. But she managed to bring an outsider into the house, by her designing waiting woman, and corrupted herself and then took to various tricks to prove her innocence.³ In fact, corruption is the rule of their life. Given opportunity, all women work iniquity.⁴ No woman finds delight in her own house. A wife forsakes her husband though strong and lusty.

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She will sin with any other man, even with a lame person.⁵ A householder's wife plays tricks with her husband, in whose absence she carries on intrigues with the village headman.⁶ In her husband's absence, a Brāhmaṇa lady misconducted herself, and there was no end to the stream of her lovers in and out of the house.⁷ A bride, while carried in a closed carriage accompanied by a large escort, misconducted herself with King Kandari of Benares who was kept concealed by his minister in a tent-shaped screen, in order to be convinced of the depravity of woman-kind.⁸ Passion in woman is all-consuming. They are proud by nature. They will not let their pride kiss the ground easily by a man whom their heart yearns for.⁹ A queen had, by her repeated importunity, caused her husband, the king, to promise that he would not look on any other woman with eyes of love, but she herself used, regularly, to sin in the absence of the king.¹⁰ But with such a corrupted state of things in the harem of the king we have already become familiar. Here we only try to get an idea of the state of things among the general mass of the people. Women are profligacy incarnate (itthiyo asātā nāma).¹¹ Passion makes them completely blind. No woman is ever faithful to one man alone.¹² So on and so on. And the Jātakas leave no stone unturned to prove this. Examples they give us in countless numbers, both from history and from everyday life.

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Similies they employ, so striking,¹³ that they won't escape from our memory easily. We must now stop here, we think. The upshot of the whole discussion is, that adultery and corruption did exist in the society, as always; *paradāra gamana* and *itthimāyā* were not, or could not be, absent.¹ All women—unmarried women, unmarried girls (*kumāriyo*), married women (*sabbhattu*) and widowed women (*jiṇṇā*)—are prey to fleshy lust, but through honour's voice they check the passion, so we hear also.² And this precisely is the keystone of the whole subject. Whereas corruption was certainly there, and mothers often became sorry for their sons visiting neighbourer's wives and not returning home in time,³ the situation could not have been so utterly hopeless as the stories would make us believe, with all the emphasis at their command. The purpose of the *Jātakas*, specially in this direction, is avowedly didactic, and we must discount the terms in which women are referred to. These utterances are from, and for, the ascetics—those who, perhaps, tired of their own weakness, and despaired of their failures, want to run away from the world: and so it is that women are a stain to the religious life—*itthiyo nāma pabbajitassa malam*.⁴ These people, you see, having got all the terrible traits in the character of the tender sex in one place, cannot entertain respectful feelings towards women.

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They are apt to cherish frightful feelings, and to keep themselves aloof from feminine charms that overcome man's reason,⁵ as admonitions to budding ascetics like Isisiṅga, to show.⁶ The general mass of the people, on the other hand, had not the least aversion towards, or squeamishness about women. We may not deny the existence of moral corruption, but we must emphatically hold, that the perverse sentiments expressed before were not the sentiments of the people in general: they come from the mouths of those who, through some reason or other, looked beyond this world, and whom Varāhamihira, a few centuries after, termed 'wicked persons.'⁷ And in the face of their preachings, people maintained their love towards wives, whose status, though, was no higher.⁸ In the *Jātakas* themselves we can see this other side of the picture, the picture of devoted and chaste wives, of happy love and affection between husband and wife.

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¹⁰ J., I, p. 499.

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¹ J., III, p. 342. Methunadhammena, alaṁkāreṇa, vijāyanena......

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² J., II, p. 323 ff.

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³ J., I, p. 289 ff : a green-grocer tests his daughter's innocence before giving her in marriage : I, pp. 411-2 ; II, p. 180.

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⁴ J., I, p. 289-G 7

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⁵ J., V, p. 440-G. 308.

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⁶ J., II, pp. 134-6 and G. 93-4.

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⁷ J., I, p. 496-G. 141 ; also II, pp. 133-G. 91 ; 168-G. 122 ; 338 ff. G. 46-8 ; III, pp. 342 ff G. 46 ff ; IV, pp. 245-298.

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⁸ J., V, p. 439.

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⁹ J., II, pp. 338-40. GG. 46-8.

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¹⁰ J., I, pp. 437 ff G. 116.

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¹¹ J., I, p. 288-G. 60.

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¹² J., I, p. 293 ; III, p. 221-2-G. 124 ; V, p. 450-G. 341 : "One woman may have husbands eight, yet on a ninth her love she sets."

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¹³ The limit is reached when a woman is so horribly described, in her unbridled lust, to be thirsting for the blood of her own dutiful son : J., I, pp. 280-8.

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¹ J., V, p. 403-G. 253; VI, p. 238-G. 1064; V, p. 157; IV, p. 178-G. 42.

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² J., V, p. 410-G. 282.

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³ J., V, p. 330-G. 172.

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⁴ J., I, pp. 128, 155; II, p. 326; III, pp. 250, 530-G. 92 ff; V, p. 289; VI, pp. 64, 540.

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⁵ Law, Women in Buddhist Literature, p. 42.

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⁶ J., V, pp. 159-60. 129-32: 207-8-G. 51-6.

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⁷ He says: *Ye hyaṅganānāṃ pravadanti doṣān* *vairāgyamārgeṇa guṇānvihāya:* *te dūrjanāḥ me manaso vitarkāḥ* *Sadhbhavavākyāni na ca tāni teṣām.*—Bṛhatsaṃhitā.

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⁸ Cf. the significant remarks in Jaina works: "....Men forsooth say, women are the vessels of happiness, but ...." *Ācārāṅgasūtra*, 1, 2, 4, 3; 5, 4, 5; "In this world men have a natural liking for women"; he who knows and renounces them, will easily perform his duties as a Śramaṇa: *Uttarādhyayanasūtra*, II, 16, 17.

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People never love others as they do a beloved wife, so we hear;⁹ "may thy friendship with thy loved wife be indissoluble:" is the benediction of Vidhura bestowed upon the Yakkha general Puṇṇaka, who won the hand of Irandati.¹⁰

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⁹ J., VI, p. 458.

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¹⁰ J., VI, 323—*ajeyyamesa tava hotu metti bhariyāya kaccāna piyāya saddhiṃ*.

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“A maiden fair, with wreath upon her head
Fragrant with sandal oil, by me was led
A happy bride within my house to reign :”¹

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¹ J., III, p. 512-G. 108.

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These utterances of a mother give us the picture of a happy household. The custom, as to-day, made unrelated girls, sisters.² As against the invectives cited above we have the following:

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² J., I, p. 111; at VI, p. 32, we witness a curious scene, as if it were a custom, of a woman—a helpless woman—calling an unknown man ‘brother,’ clasping his feet and making a loud lamentation—“*ahaṃ taṃ bhaginiṭṭhāne thapetvā paṭijaggissāmi, bhū’ika ti mam vatvā pādesu gahetvā paridevā.*”

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“Truth that sages ascertained, who is there that dares to blame?
Women in this world are born, destined to great power and fame.
They for dalliance are formed, joys of love for them ordained,
Seeds within them germinate, source from whence all life’s sustained.
They from whom man draws his breath scarce by man may be disdained.”³

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³ J., V, p. 368-G. 119-20.

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All women were not like Alambusā or Nalinikā : there did arise, from time to time, illuminating illustrations of Sujātā, Sambulā, Amarādevī, Udayabhaddā, Udumbarā, Rūjā and others. Sujātā, fair and lovely, was a faithful, virtuous and dutiful girl, properly discharging her duties to her husband and parents-in-law. Both husband and wife dwelt together in joy, and unity, and oneness of mind.⁴ Sambulā was again a symbol of a devoted wife. She followed her leprosy-stricken husband to the forest, and served him with exemplary devotion.⁵ And thus the words of the Saṃyutta Nikāya⁶ that: *bhariyā paramā sakhā*—wife is a supreme comrade—come to be true.

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⁴ J., II, pp. 121-5.

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⁵ J., V, pp. 88-98-G. 272-4, 294, 296, 303.

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⁶ J., I, p. 37; *Kindred sayings*, I, p. 52, n. 3. *Cf.* Hopkins, J. A. O. S., 13, pp. 363-4.

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AT HOME. These instances, no doubt, confirm the idea that a woman’s highest object of worship was her husband, the ideal of a Hindu wife that has stood the ravages of centuries. Ideas prevailing at the time, with regard to the duties and status of a wife, as already noticed, show that she was under the subjection of her husband, and was his absolute property, for Vessantara could give Maddi away to a Brāhmaṇa who begged her of him, and still “she did not frown nor chafe or cry.”⁷

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⁷ J., VI, p. 570-G. 2309 : *Cf.* I, p. 305; while on the one hand, we see at J., III, p. 165, a husband abusing, beating and oppressing his wife, we also notice, on the other hand, a woman striking the back of her husband with a spoon which she used for frying rice (*vihibhajjanadabbi*), because he left earning his livelihood, and began to talk of becoming an ascetic : J., VI, p. 177.

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SECLUSION. On the question of seclusion again we have evidence both for and against. But the evidence for seclusion of women is very scanty indeed. It is for the most part the royal maidens who are termed *Orodhā*.⁸ Only the queens, and princesses, and perhaps daughters of noble families, went in a covered carriage (*paṭicchannayāna*).¹ But even there the custom does not seem to have been rigid. We often see queens freely moving in the palace, and talking with ministers and other officers.² Generally however women had complete freedom. They enjoyed in public places of enjoyment.³ Daughters-in-law were not forbidden, as to-day, to talk before their elders, fathers-in-law.⁴ A man goes with his wife through the bazaar freely.⁵ At public ceremonies, or feast or festivals women are seen moving without any fear,⁶ as we saw a woman insisting on going to the festival in a safflower-coloured garment, with her arms twined around her husband.⁷ Still however we are inclined to believe, that opportunities were very few in which women could develop their capacities. They were, for instance, not supposed to be knowing swimming, as the men were.⁸ We are elsewhere⁹ told that women are naturally timid (*itthiyo bhīrujātikā*). And cowards are compared to women. When an archer becomes wroth with the robbers for offering him raw meat, the latter says: "What, is he the only man, and are we merely women?"¹⁰ The husband drives the cart and the wife sits behind.¹¹

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⁸ J., VI, pp. 15-G. 25; 21. G. 66; 328-G. 1447; 465-G. 1642 : *Cf.* Pāṇini, Aṣṭādhyāyī, III, 2, 36, which yields the term *asūryampaśyā* and has been explained in the Kāśikā as *asūr-yampaśyā rājadārā* : *Cf.* Bhandarkar, *Aśoka*, p. 182 : “To go veiled is only a court custom.” C. H. I., I, p. 293.

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¹ J., V, p. 439; VI, pp. 31, 33, 167, 498.

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² J., VI, pp. 293-4, 300.

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³ J., I, p, 390; IV, p. 390.

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⁴ J., I, p. 453.

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⁵ J., IV, p. 114.

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⁶ J., VI, p. 328-G. 1447.

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⁷ J., I, p. 499. On the freedom of woman in ancient India see Oldenberg, *Buddha*, p. 164; "It is probable that while in earlier days a good deal of freedom was allowed to all women, things had greatly changed by the time the epic had come to be written down." Siddhanta, *op. cit.*, p. 160.

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⁸ J., III, p. 221-G. 123.

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⁹ J., VI, p. 29.

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¹⁰ J., III, p. 220.

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¹¹ J., II, p. 122.

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MOTHER- HOOD—THE AIM.

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Motherhood is the one outstanding aim of the Indian marriage ideal: "Women," says Manu, "were ordained to be mothers, even as men were created to be fathers"—a statement of the principal purpose, perhaps not quite in harmony with modern notions, but none-the-less significant of the hidden aim of human life.¹² That is why a wife is called *Pajāvatī* (or *pajāpatī*) in our stories.¹³ All women, whether rich or poor, long (*puttatthikā*) and beg for sons and daughters, and offer prayers and gifts to heaven.¹⁴ Barrenness was a curse to a woman.¹⁵ She was less respected for this reason, so much so that we hear of a woman pretending to be big with child up to the last, through the help of her good old nurse who instructs her fully in the whole process.¹⁶ Here we fortunately have a glimpse of a woman in this state. The woman who became heavy with child was generally sent to her own parent home (*pitṛkulam*)¹ for bringing forth the child. Stopping of monthly courses (*utukāla*) was the sign of a woman having conceived. The general idea of the child's time in the mother's womb was 9 or 10 months.² During this period there is a strong craving in a woman's heart, (*dohala*) which must be fulfilled, at any cost, and we have many a figure of harrassed husbands on this account.³ Some ceremonies were performed at the time of a woman's conception for the protection of the embryo (*gabbhaparihāra*).⁴ The pains of travail at the birth of a child are kown as *Kammajavāta*,⁵ thus showing how deeply the Karma theory was rooted in the minds of the people.

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¹² Shah, *Splendour that was Ind.*, p. 197.

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¹³ For instance, J., II, pp. 6, 305.

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¹⁴ J., VI, p. 150-G. 694-7.

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¹⁵ Cf. MBH. XIII, 127, 129.

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¹⁶ J., IV, p. 37; also J., IV, p. 489.

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¹ J., II, p. 122 ; IV, pp. 37-8 ; V, p. 439.

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² J., III, p. 503 ; IV, p. 37 : VI, p. 485-G. 1699.

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³ J., I, pp. 278-9 ; IV, pp. 334, 414 ; V, pp. 354-5 ; VI, p. 263-G. 1141: *Cf.* Yājñavalkya, of the subject see J. A., O.S., XI., p. 4 *ff*; The object longed for is for the most part a lump of clay, as is well known.

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⁴ J., II, p. 2 ; IV, p. 323 ; V, p. 281; *Cf.* Bühler, Ritual Litteratur, in Grundriso der Indo-iran, Philologie, p. 43.

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⁵ J., VI, p. 485. In trying to solve the origin of creation these ancient people put forth the theory, that originally there were no wives, and that the creation of mankind was the out-come of the mind: *Pure puratthā kā kassa bhariyā; mano manussam ajanesi pubbe*; J., VI, p. 213-G. 922.

Cites (11)