Pre-Buddhist India: A Political, Administrative, Economic, Social and Geographical Survey of Ancient India Based Mainly on the Jataka Stories c6.s5: Chapter VIII. Manners and Customs
Pre-Buddhist India: A Political, Administrative, Economic, Social and Geographical Survey of Ancient India Based Mainly on the Jātaka Stories c6.s5
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Chapter VIII. Manners and Customs
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“THE object of composing the Birth-stories,” said I-Tsing in the seventh century A.D., “is to teach the doctrine of universal salvation in a beautiful style, agreeable to the popular mind and attractive to readers.”¹ This shows the universal popularity of the stories. There can therefore be no doubt that the teachings and instructions embodied in them had a wide appeal, and, as we just said, people tried to put into practice the ethical ideals placed before them.
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¹ I-Tsing's Travels ed. by Takakusu, p. 163.
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Above all, charity (*dānam*) was the most widely practised of these ideals. Giving of alms is everywhere extolled.² Almost every householder, from the king down to the poorest villager, performed this charitable act, and believed it an ancestral practice (*kulavattam*).³ Rich people and the kings built alms-houses (*dānasālā*): at the four city-gates, in the centre of the city, and at their own house-doors, where food and drink (*annapānam*) were provided to the *samana-brāhmaṇas*, the poor (*daliddā*), way-farers (*vanibbakā*) and the beggars (*yācanakā*).⁴
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² Specially J., III, pp. 471-3 GG. 71-6.
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³ J., IV, pp. 34-G. 53.
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⁴ J., II, pp. 470 ff; IV, pp. 39, 53, 237; V, pp. 383 ff; VI, pp. 42, 96, etc.
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Then another outstanding practice towards leading a noble life was that of *uposatha* or keeping of Fast. This sabbath vow, *uposatha* (*upavāsa*), which is still widely observed as a religious vow by the ordinary people, and as a means to self-purification by individuals like Mahātmā Gāndhī, was observed on the New and Full Moon days (*pakkhadivase*)—on the fifteenth of each *pakkha* (*pannarasu-posatha*).⁵ On this day the eight-fold sabbath vows (*aṭṭhāṅga*) were taken,⁶ especially the four abstinences (*caturaṅga*) from food (*āhāra*), bodily attentions (*śarīra-satkāra*), sexual intercourse (*abrahma*) and daily work (*vyāpāra*).⁷ On the *uposatha* day, the bed was to be smaller than usual.⁸ There was no killing of creatures on that day.⁹ It was a solemn day for meditations or hearing the *dhamma* by men and women alike.¹⁰
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⁵ J., 1, p. 390; II, p. 190; III, pp. 292, 343; IV, pp. 318, 320-G. 114-pāṭihāriyapakkho; V, pp. 1, 458; VI, pp. 1, 96, 121-G. 524; 169, 186, 257; In Buddha's time the 8th and the 14th days were also observed, probably in the Saṅgha; Mahāvagga, II, 1, 1.
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⁶ J., IV, pp. 318, 320-G. 114: they were the eight silas: against taking life, theft impurity, lying, intoxicating liquors, eating at forbidden hours, worldly amusements, unguents and ornaments.
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⁷ J., VI, p. 169; Cf. Hoernle on Uvāsagadasāo, note 87.
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⁸ J., VI, p 1 (cullasayanaka).
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⁹ J., VI, p. 346-uposathamāghāta.
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¹⁰ J., III, p. 445.
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And thus their life rolled on. The general milieu of Indian life in those days was, as it might have been apparent by now, to a surprising degree, the same as in modern India, in spite of the two thousand years and more that have played so much havoc with the political history of this country. One cannot but be struck by the wonderful persistency of the manners and customs of the people. To take a few examples: The old custom of saying "Long life to you (jīva)" to a person who sneezed and of replying "The same to you (paṭijīva)" is preserved.¹ The custom of patting with satisfaction on the back of the one who has done good deeds is also present in the stories.² We can even see this little belief, that the throbbing of the right eye of a woman is a symptom of some calamity to happen, strongly rooted in the minds of the people.³ Those eyes were believed to be auspicious which had five graces and three circles very pure.⁴ Even in those days the people, especially the women, were wont to cursing those who were supposed to have done some wrong to them, in some such words as these: "May thy mother, cruel priest, (the person who has wronged) feel all the bitter agony which tears my heart when I behold my precious Canda led to die; may thy wife feel all this bitter agony; may she see sons and husbands slain."⁵ It was believed to be wrong to tell the name of a saintly teacher (gurutthānīya).⁶ Worshipping the saints by prostrating oneself on the ground with five contacts,⁷ and also respecting them by thrice walking round them rightwise (padakkhiṇam) and doing the four obeisances,⁸ were common. Besides these, there were many beliefs and superstitions as we have already seen. As to general manners we see that honour and respect were always paid to the elders. We have also seen how the guest was honoured with the traditional Indian hospitality.
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¹ J., II, pp. 16-7-G. 9-10; similar to the minor superstition of yawning: *Hiraṇyakeśi Gṛhya Sūtra*, I, 5, 16, 2.
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² J., III, p. 132-tuttho hatthena piṭṭhiṃ parimajji.
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³ J., VI, pp. 557-G. 2213-dakkhiṇakkhi ca phandati.
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⁴ J., III, p. 294-pañca pasādā, tīni maṇḍalāni
5. J., IV, pp. 285-GG. 22-6; VI, pp. 148-9-GG. 682-9.
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⁶ J., III, pp. 305 and G. 111; *Cf.* Mahāvagga I, 74, 1.
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⁷ J., III, p. 470-pañcangāni pathaviṃ patiṭṭhāpetvā vanditvā; aṣṭāngapraṇipāta is a later elaboration.
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⁸ J., IV, p. 419.
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The limit of human life, as in older times,⁹ was believed to be one hundred or at the most hundred and twenty years.¹⁰ As to the disposal of the dead, we have a clear indication of the funeral pyre and the burning of the corpses. There were cemeteries (susānaṃ) with gates.¹¹ At the funeral the women, probably, wore red garments, had their hair dishevelled and torches in their hands.¹² Four men carried the corpse to the cemetery.¹³ The dead body was placed on the wooden pile and, offerings of perfumes and flowers being made, fire was set to it.¹⁴ Thus the general custom was of cremation and not of burial. Among the various causes of death to beings, these are mentioned: some die sunk in the sea, or seized therein by ravenous fish, some falling in the Ganges, or seized by crocodiles, some falling from a tree or pierced by a thorn, some struck by weapons of divers kinds, some by eating poison or hanging or falling from a precipice or by extreme cold or attacked by diseases of divers kinds.¹ Out of the various modes of ending life, that by drowning oneself is clearly instanced in the bankrupt of the *Ruru jātaka*.² We do not however hear of condemnation or approval of different forms of suicide. It seems cases of suicide were very rare.
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⁹ See Vedic Index, I, p. 342.
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¹⁰ J., II, pp. 16-G. 9-10.
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¹¹ J., I, pp. 175, 373, 458; II, p. 50 (gosusānaṃ); V, p. 458; VI, p. 365.
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¹² J., III, p. 374.
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¹³ J., VI, pp. 464-G. 1635-yathā petaṃ susānasmiṃ chaddaetvā caturo janā.
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¹ J., III, p. 345.
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² J., IV, p. 256.
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SPORTS AND FESTIVITIES. Was it, then, a life serious and morose, uneventful and stagnant, full of pain and misery devoid of any joy and amusement that these *Jātaka* people lived? We do not think so. On the other hand, the very wit and masterful humour that ring through these simple, inornate yet forceful, stories, reflect a mind which must be described as joyful, if not robust. And the various games and festivities of which we so often read, are the diversions of people who seek pleasure and amusement, of people who have plenty of leisure to enjoy and sufficient fortunes to provide for the simple means of enjoyment.³
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³ See for the various games and recreations, shows and performances: *Brahmajāla-Suttanta : Dialogues* I, pp. 7-11; *Ācārāṅgasūtra*, I, 8, 1, 5-8; II, 12, 18 "Where women or men, old young or middle aged ones, are well-dressed and ornamented, sing, distribute portion or parcel out plenty of food, drink, dainties and spices."
4. J., VI, p. 6.
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As is natural, small boys and girls were fond of toys and playthings (*kilābhaṇḍanam*).⁴ We have already seen⁵ how children enjoyed themselves, taking delight in all sorts of games.
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⁵ Supra, p. 266.
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Playing with balls (*bhendukam*) seems to have been a popular sport.⁶ The ball with which Nalinikā played before Isisiṅga was beautifully painted with varied colours, tied to a string (*tantubaddham*) so that however far it was tost it would still return to her hands.⁷
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⁶ J., V, pp. 196, 203-G. 37; VI, p. 741.
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⁷ J., V, pp. 196-G. 10; 203-G. 37; was it a rubber string with which the ball was tied?
8. J., VI, p. 341-dolāya kīḷitam.
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Swings of rope there were, where even the kings sported themselves.⁸ Water-sport (*udakakīḷam*) in rivers or tanks was a favourite pastime with the rich (*issarajātika*) and the kings.⁹ There were public places for sports (*kīḷamaṇḍalam*).¹⁰ Moreover, every great city in those days was surrounded by extensive gardens where people could find some relief. These gardens had trees, fruits and flowers.¹¹ *Uyyānakīḷanam* or garden-sports were common wherein even young ladies took part.¹² Probably kings had their own separate parks where, as we have seen, they betook themselves with their councillors for important discussions or with their subjects to enjoy music and dance.
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⁹ J., I, p. 458; VI, p. 341.
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¹⁰ J., VI, p. 333.
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¹¹ J., II, p. 188.
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¹² J., IV, p. 376; VI, p. 157; *Cf. Udyānayātrās of Vātsyāyana : Kāmasūtra*, Chakladar op. cit., pp. 108-9.
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Besides the various sports and amusements that enlivened the daily life of the people, there were frequent high days and holidays when they made merry with their friends and companions. On these festival days (*chaṇam*: *ussavo*) which were proclaimed by beat of drum, there was great noise of sound and music of those that made merry.¹ The village-drummers and conch-blowers rejoiced to go to the towns, and made money by their art.² On these days even the farmers hang up their ploughs and joined in the festivities.³ Even the poor-folk wore new clothes, went on with their wives hanging on their shoulders, and enjoyed with garlands, perfumes and drinks.⁴ The most popular among these festivals was the *Kattikā* festival which was celebrated on the night of the Full Moon day of the month of *Kattikā* (*Kārtikī pūrṇimā*), when the king went in a solemn procession round the city.⁵ Equally celebrated was the Full Moon day of the month of *Aśvina* (*Cātumāsini Komudi*) when the sky is beautifully clear and the orb of the full moon of the last month of the rains shines in all splendour.⁶ This *Śarad Pūrṇimā* or *Kaumudī-Jāgara* is still the most favoured of the festivals, both among the simple folk and the cultured classes, in which the whole night is passed without sleep by playing at dice or similar other amusements. There were presumably many other festivals on the changes of the planets and of seasons (*nakkhatte*: *utu-pubbesu*).⁷ On these and specially on the drinking festivals (*surānakkhatam*: *surāchaṇo*), people ate and drank strong drinks to their hearts' content. Besides the taverns (*surāpaṇa*), special drinking booths (*maṇḍapam*) were put up on these days. People believed this drinking as time-honoured festival.⁸
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¹ J., V, p. 428.
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² J., I, pp. 283-4.
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³ J., VI, pp. 328-G. 1445—Unnaṅgala māsam imaṃ karontu.
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⁴ J., I, p. 499; III, p. 446.
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⁵ J., I, pp. 499-500-G. 143; II, p. 372; V, pp. 212-4.
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⁶ J., VI, pp. 221-2-G. 947, 949, 953 (*uttamo ussavo*).
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⁷ J., VI, pp. 524-G. 1974.
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⁸ J., I, pp. 362, 489; III, p. 287; IV, pp. 116-6; V, pp. 427-8.
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THE SAMAJJAS. Then there were frequent *Samajjas*,⁹ where crowds of men, women and children gathered together and witnessed various kinds of shows and performances, dancing and music, ballad-recitations (*akkhānam*), and pantomimes, combats of elephants, horses and rams, bouts of quarter-staff (*daṇḍehi yuddham*) and wrestling. Boys and girls were fond of these social gatherings,¹⁰ and the parents of the youths studying at the university schools, like Benares and Takkasilā, sent messages for their sons to come and see the festivals.¹¹ The palace-court of the king (*rājaṅgaṇam*) was the usual place where these gatherings were held, and the king himself would make a proclamation by beat of drum and invite the people to come there and witness the performances.¹ A pavilion (*maṇḍapaṃ*) was set up at the palace-door: a throne (*pallaṅka*) was set apart for the king: around him sat slaves, women of the harem, courtiers, Brāhmaṇas and the citizens. In the courtyard were fixed seats, circle by circle, and tier by tier (*Cakkāṭicakke : mañcātimañce*).² Among a sort of Olympic games wrestling (*mallayuddhaṃ*) was the most popular.³ The wrestling-ring (*yuddhamaṇḍalaṃ*) was gaily decorated. Both the wrestlers went down into the ring, and strutted about, jumping, shouting, clapping their hands.⁴ They struck their doubled arms (*diguṇaṃ bhujaṃ*) to each other: one tried to strike down the other.⁵ Then there were wonderful feats of archery as noticed before.⁶ Fights of rams⁷ and elephants⁸ and horse-playing⁹ were also common. Dramatic festivities (*nāṭakāni*) were also instituted.¹⁰ In the *Guttila Jātaka*,¹¹ we witness a musical competition between two master-musicians amidst a big gathering of people in the palace courtyard. Outside the palace courtyard, again, we see people enjoying themselves with various sights and performances: acrobatic feats¹² snake-charmer's tricks,¹³ and so on. The people took great interest in all these games and performances and, when delighted, they would give out their garments and ornaments, probably as a reward for the skilful performers.¹⁴ Of outdoor festivities we hear of *samajjas* arranged on mountaintops (*giriaggasamajja*),¹⁵ where feasting was indulged in and, possibly also, theatrical performances were instituted, as in later days.¹⁶ In all these part, if at all.¹⁷ They were, for the most part, purely secular amusements. Besides the festivals and occasional festivities, there were daily *goṣṭhis* (*goṭṭhaṃ*)¹⁸ or social gatherings where people diverted themselves in pleasant talks and gossips on varied subjects.¹⁹
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⁹ See for a fuller significance of the term, Bhandarkar, *J.B.B.R.A.S.*, 21, pp. 305 ff; *I.A.*, XLIII, pp. 255 ff; also Ibid, XLVII, pp. 221 ff; Aśoka, pp. 19-21; F. W. Thomas, *J. R. A. S.*, 1914, pp. 392 ff. 752; 1918, 122 ff, M. M. Bose, *I. H. Q.*, IV, pp. 111-3; "Samāja was of two kinds: in one the people were treated to dainty dishes, in the other to dancing, music, wrestling and other performances... Both the kinds of Samājas seem to have been celebrated by Aśoka. But when he began to preach Dhamma, he naturally tabooed those where animals were slain to serve meat." (R. E. I.) As there was nothing in the other samājas for him to object to, he retained them: Bhandarkar, Aśoka, p. 201.
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¹⁰ J., VI, p. 7.
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¹¹ J., III, p. 538.
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¹ J., II, p. 253; IV, p. 458; VI, pp. 7, 277-G. 1202.
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² J., II, p. 253; IV, pp. 81-2; VI, p. 277.
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³ J., III, p. 160; IV, pp. 81-2; VI, pp. 277-G. 1202.
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⁴ J., IV, pp. 81-2.
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⁵ J., VI, pp. 277-G. 1203.
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⁶ Supra, pp. 311-2.
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⁷ J., III, p. 82.
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⁸ J., II, pp. 48-9; IV, p. 95; V, p. 286.
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⁹ J., VI, p. 275.
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¹⁰ J., V, p. 282.
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¹¹ J., II, pp. 253-4.
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¹² e.g., J., III, pp. 541-G. 112.
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¹³ J., II, p. 267; IV, pp. 457-8.
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¹⁴ J., II, pp. 90, 253-4; III, pp. 344, 506; V, p. 130.
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¹⁵ J., III, p. 538.
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¹⁶ The Jogimārā cave (2nd B.C.) on the Rāṃgaṛh, hill (Chhoṭā Nāgpur) seems, according to Bloch, to have been used, if not for the performance of plays, at any rate for purposes of recitation of poems or some similar end: *Archaeological Survey of India Report*, 1903-4, pp. 123 ff: See Keith, *Sanskrit Drama*, pp. 358, ff.
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¹⁷ Once we hear of people offering bali to ogres and sprites on a *nakkhatta*: J., I, p. 425.
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¹⁸ J., IV, pp. 223-G. 53.
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¹⁹ Vātsyāyana gives a detailed description of these *goṣṭhis*: See Chakladar, *op. cit.*, pp. 163-7.
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We are thus able to see, that the life that these people led was not at all morbid or dreamy-like, as is generally believed to have been the case in regard to Ancient Indian life in general. It was a life born of everyday struggles and developed through intermittant pleasures and amusements, fairs and festivals, joy and beauty, which alone could preserve the soul of the race, as of individual.¹
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¹ How incorrect do these words of Oldenberg seem to be in the light of our findings : “Without a past living in their memory, without a present which they might utilise in love and hate, without a future for which men might hope and work, they dreamed morbid and proud dreams of that which is beyond all times and of the peculiar government which is within these everlasting realms... The Indian has above all at an early stage, turned aside from that which chiefly preserves a people young and struggle for home, country and laws.” Buddha, pp. 3, 12.
Linked texts (5)
- Jātaka — Pāli
- Mahāvagga — Pāli
- Brahmajālasutta — Pāli
- Hiraṇyakeśigṛhyasūtra — Hiraṇyakeśin, Sanskrit
- Kāmasūtra — Vātsyāyana Mallanāga, Sanskrit