[Pramāṇa](https://indike.org/pramana/) › [Studies](https://indike.org/pramana/ins) › [Polity, law and society](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity) › [Chandragupta Maurya and His Times](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.mookerji-1943) › c19 # Chandragupta Maurya and His Times c19: Appendix III: Parallelism Between Asoka’s Edicts and Kauṭilya’s Arthaśāstra Chandragupta Maurya and His Times c19 - **Language:** English ### Appendix III: Parallelism Between Asoka’s Edicts and Kauṭilya’s Arthaśāstra ### [c19.2](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.mookerji-1943.c19.2) The purpose of this Appendix is to bring together the parallel passages in the \*Arthaśāstra\* of Kauṭilya and the Inscriptions of Asoka so as to show to what extent they throw light upon each other, and may be considered as contemporary documents. The resemblance between the observations of Megasthenes and Kauṭilya has been worked out thoroughly to prove or to disprove that they were contemporaries, but the resemblance beween Kauṭilya's work and Asoka's Inscriptions waits to be worked out for the same purpose. The resemblance extends both to words and ideas, to technical terms as well as to institutions peculiar to Mauryan polity. It may be set out as follows: ### [c19.3](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.mookerji-1943.c19.3) | \*Asoka's Edicts.\* | \*Kauṭilya's Arthaśāstra.\* | | 1. \*Mahāmātra\*, a technical term for an officer of high rank occuring in many of the Edicts. They mention the \*Mahāmātra\* as being (a) in charge of cities like Isila, Samāpā \[KRE. II\] or Kosambi \[MPE\]; (b) associated with the princely Viceroys, as at Tosalī \[KRE. II\], or at Suvarṇagiri \[MRE. I, Brahm.\]; (c) placed in charge of over thousands of lives \[KRE. II\]; | 1. In the \*Arthaśāstra\*, the \*Mahāmātra\* also figures as a minister \[I. 10, 12, 13\] and as the chief executive officer of a city under the title \*Nāgarika-Mahāmātra\* \[IV. 5\]=\*Mahāmātā-nagalaka\* of KRE, I, Jaugada, while his status and influence will be evident from the fact that the seditious \*Mahāmātra\* is a cause of much concern to the king who has to send him out of the way \[V. 1\]. | ### [c19.4](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.mookerji-1943.c19.4) | \*Aśoka's Edicts.\* | \*Kauṭilya's Arthaśāstra.\* | | (\*d\*) deputed on quinquennial inspection of judicial administration, as on other duties \[Ib\]; (\*e\*) Heads of Departments as \*Dharma-Mahāmātras\*, or \*Strīadhyaksha-Mahāmātras\* \[RE. XII\]; (\*f\*) Directors of different religious sects \[RE. V; PE. VII; MPE\]; and (\*g\*) Members of the \*Mantriparishad\* to whom the king confides urgent matters \[RE. VI\]. | | | 2. \*Devānaṁpiye evaṁ āha\* (or \*āṇapayati\*) \[occurring in so many edicts\]. | 2. Both these formulae are also mentioned by Kauṭilya as appropriate for royal orders. The former is mentioned as one of the set phrases prescribed for what is called by Kauṭilya a \*prajñāpana-śāsana\* (writ of information), while \*ājñā-lekha\* (writ of command) is mentioned as a form of \*rājaśāsana\* (royal decree) \[II. 10\]. | | 3. \*Nagala-viyohālaka\* \[KRE. I\]. | 3. Kauṭilya \[I. 12\] has the expression \*Pauravyavahārika\* for one of the eighteen chief officers of the State. He has also the expression \*Puramukhya\* \[I. 16\]. | ### [c19.5](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.mookerji-1943.c19.5) | \*Asoka's Edicts.\* | \*Kauṭilya's Arthaśāstra.\* | | 4. In KRE. I, there is a reference to judicial torture causing death and to Asoka's intention to check such abuses. | 4. Kauṭilya also refers to the severity of judicial torture of which the arbitrary and excessive applications and abuses he makes penal \[IV. 8; 9; 11\]. | | 5. \*Nikhāmayisa hedisameva vagam\* \[KRE. I\]—'depute a similar body of officers.' | 5. The word \*Varga\* is also used in the same sense by Kauṭilya \[I. 11\] (\*svaṁ svaṁ vargam\*). | | 6. \*“Te Mahamātā nikhāmisamti anusayānam”\* \[Ib\]—'these Mahāmātras would thus set out on tour.' | 6. Kauṭilya uses the word \*niryāṇa\* for the king's tour \[I. 21\]. He also refers to transfer of government servants (\*Yuktas\*) from one post to another to prevent embezzlement \[II, 9\]. Some interpret the word \*anusaṁyāna\* in the sense of 'transfer.' | | 7. \*Samāja\* \[RE. I\] of both objectionable and commendable kinds. | 7. Kauṭilya in one passage \[II. 25\] refers to \*utsava\*, \*samāja\*, and \*yātrā\* where the drinking of wine was unrestricted for 4 days. This is the objectionable kind of \*samāja\* mentioned by Asoka. Kauṭilya also mentions the commendable kind of \*samāja\* which it is the duty of the king to respect \[XIII. 5\]. | | 8. Reference to import of medicinal herbs, roots, | 8. Kauṭilya \[II. 21\] also encourages the import of | ### [c19.6](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.mookerji-1943.c19.6) | \*Asoka's Edicts.\* | \*Kauṭilya's Arthaśāstra\* | | and fruits in RE. II. | seeds of useful and medicinal plants by exempting such import from tolls. | | 9. \*Dbādasa--vasābhisitena\* \[RE. III\]: the dates given in the Edicts are all counted from Asoka's coronation. | 9. Kauṭilya \[II. 6\] also applies the term \*rājavarsha\* to the year counted from the king's coronation. | | 10. \*Yuktas\* \[RE. III and elsewhere\] and \*Purushas\* \[PE. I, IV and VII\] indicative of Government servants. | 10. Kauṭilya also uses the terms \*yukta\*, \*upayukta\* and \*purusha\* for Government servants \[II. 5\] and also the terms \*yogapurusha\* \[I. 21; V. 2\] or \*yugyapurusha\* \[VII. 4\] in the sense of employees. \[A commentator explains the term \*upayukta\* as an officer placed above the \*yuktas\* (\*yuktānām upari niyuktah\*)\]. | | 11. \*Rājūke\* \[Girnar RE. III\] or \*Rajuke\* (Mansehra). | 11. Kauṭilya \[II. 6\] uses the expression \*rajjū chora-rajjūścha\*. He also mentions \[IV. 13\] an officer called \*chora-rajjuka=chora-grahana-niyukta\*, \*i.e.\*, one whose duty was to apprehend thieves. | | 12. \*Aparānta\* \[RE. V\]. | 12. Kauṭilya also mentions Aparānta as the region known for its elephants \[II. 2\] and rainfall \[II. 24\]. | | 13. Reference to the \*Dharma-Mahāmātras\* giving | 13. Kauṭilya also recognises the duty of the State | ### [c19.7](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.mookerji-1943.c19.7) | \*Aśoka's Edicts.\* | \*Kauṭilya's Arthaśāstra\* | | State help to the destitute and infirm by age (\*anātheshu vriddheshu\*) \[RE. V\]. | to maintain the orphan, decrepit, diseased, afflicted and destitute \[II. 1\]. | | 14. Reference to unjust imprisonment (\*bandhana\*), execution (\*vadha\*) and torture (\*palibodha\*) of prisoners and to Aśoka's measures for checking such abuses in RE. X. | 14. Kauṭilya also \[IV. 9\] mentions such abuses as (\*a\*) confining persons without reason (\*saṁruddhalamanākhyāya\*), (\*b\*) putting them to unjust torture (\*karmakārayataḥ\*), (\*c\*) molesting them (\*parikleśayataḥ\*) and (\*d\*) causing their deaths (\*ghnataḥ\*). | | 15. Reference in RE. VI to Aśoka's readiness for public business at all hours, even when he is eating (\*bhumjamānasa\*), or in the harem (\*orodhanamhi\*), or inner apartments, or ranches (\*vachamhi\*), or parks (\*uyānesu\*). | 15. The list of king's duties mentioned by Kauṭilya agrees with what is suggested here. \*E.g.\*, the \*orodhana\* of the Edict corresponds to \*śayīta\* of Kauṭilya; \*bhumjāmanasa\* to \*snānabhojana\*; \*uyanesu\* to \*svairavihāra\*; while as regards \*vraja\*, Kauṭilya refers to the king's duty of inspecting the horses, elephants, chariots and infantry as well as his livestock \[I. 19\]. In II. 6, Kauṭilya uses the term \*vraja\* of the Edict to include cows, buffaloes, goats, sheep, asses, camels, horses and mules. Lastly, as the Edict refers to the king going to his \*udyāna\* for pleasure, Kauṭilya \[II. 2\] | ### [c19.8](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.mookerji-1943.c19.8) | \*Asoka's Edicts.\* | \*Asoka's Edicts.\* | | | provides for \*mṛgavana\* for the king for the same pleasure. | | 16. \*Prativedakas\* are mentioned in RE. VI as officers who are to keep the king informed about the affairs of his people. | 16. Kauṭilya also speaks of the Intelligence Department of the administration manned by officers called \*Gūḍhapurushas\* \[I. 11-13\]. | | 17. \*Mukhato āñapayāmi svayaṁ dāpakaṁ\* \[RE. VI\]. | 17. Kauṭilya also mentions \[II. 7\] an officer called \*Dāpaka\* who fixes and collects the amount of taxes to be paid by the \*Dāyaka\* (taxpayer). | | 18. Mention in RE. VI of the king referring an urgent matter \[\*āchāyike\* (Girnar); \*atiyāyike\* (Kalsi, Dhauli and Jaugada)\] to the \*Mahāmātras\* and the \*Parishad\*. | 18. Kauṭilya also enjoins: "Summoning the Ministers and their Council (\*Mantriparishadam\*), the king shall speak to them on urgent matters (\*ātyāyike kārye\*) . . all urgent matters should the king attend to (\*sarvamātyayikaṁ kāryaṁ śruṇuyāt\* \[I. 15, 19\]. | | 19. '\*Nāsti hi me toso uṣṭānamhi atha samtīraṇāya va katavyamate hi me sarvalokahitam\*\| '\*Tasa ca puna esa mūle uṣṭānaṁ cha atha-saṁtīraṇā-cha\*\| '\*Nasti hi kammataraṁ sarva-loka-hitatpā . . . .\*' \[RE. VI\]. | 19. An echo of Kauṭilya \[I. 19\]; '\*Rājño hi vratamutthānaṁ . . . prajā sukhe sukhaṁ rājñaḥ prajānāṁ cha hite hitam . . .\*' "\*\*Tasmānnityotthito rājā kuryādarthānuśāsanam\| Arthasya mūlamutthānam. . . .\*\* | ### [c19.9](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.mookerji-1943.c19.9) | \*Asoka's Edicts.\* | \*Kauṭilya's Arthaśāstra.\* | | 20. Devānāmpriya Priyadarśi Rājā desires that in all places should reside people of diverse sects \[RE. VII\]. | 20. This is apparently against Kauṭilya's injunctions that "\*Pāshaṇḍas\* and \*Chaṇḍālas\* are to dwell near the cremation ground (beyond the city)" \[II. 4\]. Elsewhere \[II. 36\], Kauṭilya also rules that no \*Pāshaṇḍas\* could be accommodated in a \*Dharmaśālā\* without the permission of the city officer, \*Gopa\*, and their abodes should be searched for suspicious characters. | | 21. Reference to \*vihāra-yātrā\* and to \*mṛigayā\* and similar diversions to which Asoka's predecessors were addicted \[RE. VIII\]. | 21. Kauṭilya gives us details about these. He provides for a reserved forest for the king's \*vihāra\* \[II. 2\] and discusses fully the merits of \*mṛigayā\* \[VIII. 3\]. While Piśuna condemns it as a \*vyasana\* or indulgence chiefly for its dangers to a king, Kauṭilya approves of it as a \*vyāyāma\* or healthy physical exercise which destroys the excess of phlegm, bile, fat, and perspiration | ### [c19.10](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.mookerji-1943.c19.10) | \*Aśoka's Edicts.\* | \*Kauṭilya's Arthaśāstra.\* | | | to as a warm lover of hunting. | | 22. Reference to proper treatment of servants and dependents (\*dāsa-bhaṭaka\*) in several Edicts \[RE. IX, XI, XIII, PE. VII\]; also to relations \[MRE. II, RE. IV, and XIII\], friends, acquaintances and companions \[RE. XIII\] to whom Asoka also insists on liberality (\*dānam\*) \[RE. III and XI\]. | 22. The details of such "proper treatment", the rights and obligations of \*dāsas\* and \*bhṛitakas\* (also called \*karmakaras\*) are fully discussed by Kauṭilya \[III. 13 and 14\] in two chapters. According to him, a man became a slave as a captive in war (\*dhvajāhṛtaḥ\*) or for inability to pay off debts incurred to meet domestic troubles or government demand for fines and court decrees. But such slavery for an \*Arya\* could always be redeemed. What Asoka means by 'proper treatment' of these slaves and paid servants may, therefore, be taken to be the treatment to which they were entitled under law as expounded by Kauṭilya. The law made penal the following offences against slaves, viz., (a) defrauding a slave of his property and privileges (b) misemploying him (such as making him carry corpses or sweep) or hurting or abusing him. As regards the \*Karmakara\*, the law secured to him his wages | ### [c19.11](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.mookerji-1943.c19.11) | \*Asoka's Edicts.\* | \*Kauṭilya's Arthaśāstra\* | | | under the agreement between him and his master which should be known to their neighbours (\*karmakarasya karmasambandhamāsannā vidyuḥ\*). The amount of the wages was to be determined by the nature of the work and the time taken in doing it. Non-payment of such wages was fined. The \*bhṛitaka\* was also entitled to his \*vetana\* or legal wages and to some concession if he was incapacitated for work (\*aśaktaḥ\*) or put to ugly work (\*kutsita karma\*) or was ill or in distress (\*vyadhau vyasane\*). It is thus clear that the full content of Asoka's repeated injunctions in his Edicts for 'proper treatment of slaves and dependents' can only be understood in the light of the details of such treatment as given by Kauṭilya. In another chapter \[II. 1.\], Kauṭilya lays down as the king's duty to correct (\*vinayaṁ grāhayet\*) those who neglect their duty towards slaves and relatives (\*dāsāhitakabandhūnaśṛiṇvato\*) and punishes with a | ### [c19.12](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.mookerji-1943.c19.12) | \*Asoka's Edicts.\* | \*Kauṭilya's Arthaśāstra.\* | | | fine the person of means not supporting his wife and children, father and mother, minor brothers or widowed sisters and daughters. Asoka is always insisting on the support of one's relations. Kauṭilya's \*details\* thus give a meaning to Asoka's seemingly general and pious exhortations, most of which were really of the nature of legal obligations which could not be disowned or violated with impunity. | | 23. '\*Tadatvāye ayatiye chā\*' in RE. X—'in the present time and in the future.' | 23. Kauṭilya also uses the expression \*tadātve cha āyatyāṁ cha\* in V. 1 and 4. | | 24. The officer called \*vacha (vracha) bhūmika\* in RE. XII. | 24. Some light is thrown on the meaning of this obscure and peculiar word by Kauṭilya. If \*vracha\* (also used in RE. VI.) is taken to be same as the word \*vraja\*, the expression \*Vraja-bhūmīka\* would mean the officer-in-charge of \*Vraja\*. Kauṭilya \[II. 6\] defines \*Vraja\* as a department of administration under the \*Samāhartā\* dealing with the live-stock of the country, comprising kine, buffaloes, goats, sheep, asses, camels, horses and mules. | ### [c19.13](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.mookerji-1943.c19.13) | \*Asoka's Edicts.\* | \*Kauṭilya's Arthaśāstra.\* | | | But the Inscription refers to the \*Vrajabhūmika\* as an officer created by Asoka for the purpose of promoting toleration, and in that case, he must be some such officer as had to deal not with the dumb animals but rather with human beings for whom such moral teaching was suitable. The word \*vraja\* suggests that these might be the people of the rural parts, the pedestrians and pilgrims along the high roads, or in the rest-houses which Asoka was so liberal in providing for facilities of travelling. Now Kauṭilya in II. 1 lays down as the king's duty the protection of the high-ways of commerce (\*vaṇik patham\*) 'from molestation by courtiers, tax-collectors (\*kārmika\*), robbers and Wardens of the Marches (\*Anta-pāla\*), and from damage by herds of cattle, and of the live-stock of the country (\*paśuvrajān\*) from robbers, tigers, poisonous creatures and diseases.' Thus an officer like the \*Vrajabhūmika\* might very well be needed for discharging this duty and obligation of the king in respect of the | ### [c19.14](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.mookerji-1943.c19.14) | \*Aśoka's Edicts.\* | \*Kauṭilya's Arthaśāstra.\* | | | \*paśuvraja\* and \*vaṇikpatha\*, an officer in charge of cattle and communications including trade-routes by both land and sea (\*sthala-patha vāripathaścha\*) \[Kauṭilya, II. 37\]. The \*Vivītādhyaksha\* of Kauṭilya \[II. 34\] corresponds to such an officer. His duty was to establish wells and tanks, groves of flower-and fruit-trees in arid (\*anudake\*) tracts, to keep the roads in order, arrest thieves, see to the safety of caravans of merchants and to protect cattle. | | 25. The officers called \*Strī-adhyaksha--mahāmātras\* in RE. XII. | 25. Kauṭilya \[I. 10\] also refers to \*Mahāmātras\* who were attached to the royal harem. As they had to deal with women, the special qualification emphasised for them is sexual purity (\*kamopadhāśuddhān\*) and they are to be placed in charge of the places of pleasure both in the capital and outside \[\*bāhyābhyantara-vihāra-rakshāsu\*\]. In passing, it may be noted that the word \*bāhya\* of Kauṭilya occurs also in RE. V. in the expression "\*Hida cha\* (or \*Paṭalipute cha\*)" | ### [c19.15](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.mookerji-1943.c19.15) | \*Asoka's Edicts.\* | \*Kauṭilya's Arthaśāstra.\* | | | \*bāhilesu cha nagalesu\*." The \*Strī-adhyaksha\* of the Edict may be also compared with the \*Gaṇikādhyaksha\* of Kauṭilya \[II. 27\]. | | 26. Reference in RE. XIII to Asoka's conquest of forest-folks (\*aṭavi\* or \*aṭaviyo\*). | 26. It is interesting to find that Kauṭilya \[XIII. 5\] mentions two kinds of conquest, viz., (1) the conquest of the \*Aṭavyādi\* or foresters and (2) the conquest of settled territory (\*grāmādi\*). He places the \*aṭavyādi\* under the administration of special officers called the \*Aṭavipāla\* \[I. 16 etc.\]. | | 27. Reference in RE. XIII to \*Dharma-vijaya\*. | 27. It is interesting to note that Kauṭilya \[XII. 1\] distinguishes three classes of conquerors \*viz.\*, (a) the \*Dharma-vijayī\* who is satisfied with the mere obeisance of the conquered; (b) the \*Lobha-vijayī\* whose greed has to be satisfied by the surrender of territory and treasure; and (c) the \*Asura-vijayī\* who (would demand) the surrender of not merely territory and treasure, but also of the sons and wives of the conquered enemy, and even taking away his life. | ### [c19.16](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.mookerji-1943.c19.16) | \*Asoka's Edicts.\* | \*Kauṭilya's Arthaśāstra.\* | | 28. Mention of officers called \*Anta-Māhamātras\* in PE. V. | 28. Kauṭilya \[II. 4\] mentions \*Anta-pālas\* among the eighteen \*Tīrthas\* or Heads of Departments in the administration. | | 29. List of protected creatures in PE. V. | 29. It is interesting to note that Kauṭilya \[II. 26\] also gives a list of protected creatures (\*pradiṣṭābhayānām\*) among which are included in common with this Edict the following, viz., Haṁsa, Chakravāk, Śuka, Śārika, and other auspicious creatures (\*maṅgalyāḥ\*). It may be also noted that though Kauṭilya does not make his list of protected creatures as exhaustive as the Edict, he lays down the principle of such protection which is only applied in the Edict to individual cases mentioned. According to that principle, those creatures, beasts, birds and fishes, are to be protected which do not prey upon other living creatures (\*apravṛitta-vadhānām\*), as also those which are regarded as auspicious (\*maṅgalyāḥ\*) like the cow. On this principle, Kauṭilya also generally forbids under penalty the killing of the | ### [c19.17](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.mookerji-1943.c19.17) | \*Aśoka's Edicts.\* | \*Kauṭilya's Arthaśāstra.\* | | | calf, the bull and the milch-cow even among the animals that did not come under the usual protected class (\*vatso vṛisho dhenuśchaishām avadhyāḥ\*). | | 30. Reference to prohibition of slaughter of life on the three \*Chaturmāsīs\* and on the Tishya full moonday. | 30. Kauṭilya \[XIII. 5\] has the following corresponding prohibition: “The king should prohibit the slaughter of animals for half a month during the period of \*Chāturmāsya\*, for four nights on the full-moon days, and for one night to mark the date of his birth or celebrate the anniversary of his conquest.” | | 31. ‘\*Nāgavana\*,’ elephant forest, as mentioned in PE. V. | 31. Kauṭilya mentions \*Nāgavana\* and has a chapter on \*Nāgavanādhyaksha\*, Superintendent of elephant forests \[II, 2 and 31\]. | | 32. Reference to 25 jail deliveries in PE. V. | 32. Kauṭilya \[II. 36\] refers to such jail-deliveries in celebration of the king’s birthday. The prisoners to be thus occasionally liberated were selected from “the juvenile, aged, diseased and helpless (\*bāla-vṛddha-vyādhita-anāthānām\*).” Similar grounds of release are also mentioned in RE. V. Good conduct in jail might also | ### [c19.18](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.mookerji-1943.c19.18) | \*Asoka's Edicts.\* | \*Kauṭilya's Arthaśāstra.\* | | | merit release according to Kauṭilya \[\*Ib.\*\]. | | 33. Asoka's concern for the \*Ajīvikas\* as expressed in PE. VII and also in the grant to them of the cave-dwellings. | 33. Kauṭilya \[III. 20\] shows his Brahmanical prejudice against them by branding them along with the Buddhists (\*Śākyājīvakādīn\*) as being unworthy of entertainment at any ceremony connected with the gods or ancestors (\*devapitṛikāryeshu\*). | | 34. \*Devī-Kumālānaṁ\* in PE. VII. | 34. The word \*Devī\* for queen is also used by Kauṭilya \[I. 10\], as well as the word \*Kumāra\* for a prince \[I. 20\]. | | 35. Asoka's control over the harem through his officers called \*Dharma-Mahāmātras\* and \*Strī-adhyaksha-mahāmātras\* as described in RE. V, XII and PE. VII. | 35. Kauṭilya \[I. 20\] acquaints us with the administrative arrangements for the royal harems of the day. The \*Antaḥpura\* with its inmates, the \*avarodhas\* (cf. \*orodhana\* of RE. VI), was placed under a military guard, the \*Antarvaṁśikasainya\*, and civil officers, the \*Abhyāgārikas\*, comprising both males and females, who regulated all communications between the harem and the outside world. It may be noted that Kauṭilya does not per- | ### [c19.19](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.mookerji-1943.c19.19) | \*Asoka's Edicts.\* | \*Kauṭilya's Arthaśāstra.\* | | | mit the \*muṇḍa\* and \*jaṭila\* ascetics (probably the Buddhists and Jains) access to the harem. He calls the chief officer of the harem \*Antarvaṁśika\* \[V. 3\] corresponding to \*Strī-adhyaksha-mahāmātra\*.¹ | ### [c19.20](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.mookerji-1943.c19.20) ¹ This Note I have adapted from my Article on the subject contributed to the Lahore Session of the All-India Oriental Conference for 1930. ## Linked texts (5) - [Kauṭilīya Arthaśāstra](https://indike.org/pramana/in.niti.artha.kautilya.1.10) — Kauṭilya, Sanskrit - [Minor Rock Edicts](https://indike.org/pramana/inp.epigraphy.asoka.mre) - [Pillar Edicts](https://indike.org/pramana/inp.epigraphy.asoka.pe) - [Minor Pillar Edicts](https://indike.org/pramana/inp.epigraphy.asoka.mpe) - [Pillar Edicts of Aśoka (Edicts I–IV) (ed. Bühler 1894)](https://indike.org/pramana/inp.epigraphy.asoka.pe.pe7*buhler1894) — Prakrit --- Source: [https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.mookerji-1943.c19](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.mookerji-1943.c19) · Pramāṇa