Theory of Government in Ancient India (Post-Vedic) c6.18

Language: English

c6.18.1

In a different passage, Bhṛigu replying to the penetrating questions of Bharadwâja, states that there is no fundamental distinction between the four orders. The whole world, at first, consisted only of Brâhmaṇas who were created even before gods and demons. Then those endowed with courage, severity, wrath, and love of pleasure and unmindful of piety and worship became Kṣatriyas. Those who combined goodness with passion and took to agriculture and cattle-rearing became Vaiśyas. Those who had fallen from purity of conduct, who were addicted to untruth, cupidity and malevolence and engaged in all kinds of occupations became Śûdras. All have the right to perform pious duties and sacrifices. Here caste is founded on merit and deed. There are some moral qualities which all should cultivate, which, in fact, are universal duties; such, for instance, are truth, justice, gentleness, forgiveness, simplicity and conjugal fidelity. Then the different castes are to follow different practices. A Brâhmaṇa should study, officiate at sacrifices, practise self-restraint and live in poverty. Teaching is one of the principal duties of the Brâhmanic order. In the Mahâbhârata, as in the Râmâyaṇa, Brâhmaṇas teach the military arts to Kṣatriya princes. Except in dire emergency, a Brâhmaṇa is never to adopt agriculture, trade or pasture, never to take to service. For then he is equal to a slave, a dog, a mere brute.

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Such a Brâhmaṇa is to be left without sustenance by the king and is even to be punished like a Śûdra. If a Brâhmaṇa takes to arms, he should, in spite of his mastery of Vedic lore, be severely chastised. The Kṣatriyas and Vaiśyas should also study the Vedas and perform sacrifices but their professions are different from those of Brāhmaṇas. The Kṣatriya should engage in warfare and display his prowess and ceaselessly protect the people. He should destroy the wicked and robbers. He should never beg for sustenance. At the close of the Civil War, Duryodhana, the leader and last surviving warrior of the Kuru party, offered to resign the dominion of the earth to Yudhiṣṭhira and retire into the forest. Yudhiṣṭhira, however, scornfully rejected the offer. The acceptance of a gift "is not the duty laid down for a Kṣatriya." He would enjoy the earth only after vanquishing his rival in battle. In short, it is military and political duties that fall on Kṣatriyas. The economic life of the community rests mainly with the Vaiśyas. They should practise agriculture and trade. They should tend cattle. When the Creator brought the domestic animals into being, He placed them under the care of the Vaiśyas. From the Yajñopavīta or initiation ceremony, these three castes are called Dwija or twice-born. Their life falls into four successive stages—studentship, household, renunciation and asceticism. To serve the twice-born is the duty of the Śūdra. Never should he desert his master.

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He is entitled to work but he is not to amass wealth lest he should lord it over the superior orders. In fact, there is no wealth which he can call his own. All his possessions belong lawfully to his master. He should receive worn-out clothing and other such goods.¹ Beyond the order of four castes lay the border tribes—Yavanas, Kirātas, Gāndhāras, Chinas, Barbars, etc., etc. They are entitled to perform certain Vedic rites and to make presents to Brāhmaṇas. "They should dig wells and give water to thirsty travellers.¹ But on the whole, they lie beyond the pale of the Hindu social system. That system, then, may be described as consisting of the privileged Dwijas on the one hand and a servile proletariat on the other. The privileged order comprised an aristocracy of learning and religion, another of arms and lastly, followers of various occupations. The Brâhmaṇas enjoyed some exceptional privileges. They were to receive honour and presents from all. Even the king should worship Brâhmaṇas who lived up to the ideal. Their lapses from morality were to be punished with a gentle hand. They are, as a rule, exempt from corporal punishment.

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Even if they are guilty of the highest crimes such as the murder of a Brâhmaṇa, violation of the bed of their preceptors or seniors, causing miscarriage, or treason against the state, they are only to be exiled,² though in a later passage we are told that all traitors, be they preceptors, kinsmen or friends, should be slain.³ On learned virtuous Brâhmaṇas the king should bestow all the land conquered in war. Apart from privileges, theory sometimes makes claims of an extreme character for the Brâhmaṇas. Charged with the upkeep of the Vedas and other scriptures, the Brâhmaṇa appears on earth as the lord of all creatures. In consequence of his birth and precedence, he is the master of everything that exists in the universe. What he eats is his own. The place he inhabits is his own. What he gives away is his own. If the Kṣatriya wields sovereignty, it is because the Brāhmaṇa refused it.¹ In any case, the fundamental laws of the social order must be enforced. It was the eternal duty of kings to prevent the confusion of castes and duties.² That indeed, is one of the objects for which government had come into being.