Administrative System of the Marathas c18.s15: 6. The Darakhdars

Administrative System of the Marathas c18.s15

Language: English

6. The Darakhdars

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Fryer and Broughton's censures were meant for the officers of the court. Our friends in the districts—the Kamavisdars and the Mamlatdars were not above the common temptation; and as a check upon them were utilised the hereditary officers. Of these we have already come across one set—the district officers, known as Deshmukhs and Deshpandes, and we know they were used as a check on the Mamlatdars, and no accounts were passed, unless corroborated by corresponding accounts from them (Elphinstone). The other set may be conveniently described as the provincial hereditary officers generally known as Darakhdars or feemen. These Darakhdars were always used as a check on the chief officers of every department, the army and the navy included. None of these hereditary officers could be dismissed by the Mamlatdar, nor could he compel them to perform any duties except those specifically assigned to them by long practice and custom. Not that the Mamlatdars never tried to do away with their independent subordinates; but in such cases the Darakhdar could confidently look towards the Peshwa's authority to back him and reinstate him in his ancestral office, and the peremptory order always ended with the usual phrase "that the work of the office should be taken from his hands." On the provincial staff besides twelve Karkuns there were (1) Dewan or Minister, (2) Auditor or Mazumdar, (3) the Registrar or Fadnavis, (4) Secretary or Daftardar, (5) Treasurer or Potnis, (6) Assay clerk or Potdar, (7) Petty Registrar or Sabhasad and (8) Under-Secretary or Chitnis. As these officers had not to depend on the Mamlatdar for their pay, they were in every respect independent of him. It was, therefore, quite natural that they were expected to be efficient checks on any intended malpractice on the part of the Mamlatdar and to report to the central government all lapses on his part if any ever happened. Moreover their duties were divided and assigned in such a manner that the Mamlatdar could not act independently of them. "The *divan* as the chief factor under the *mamlatdar* countersigned all letters and orders. The Auditor or *majumdar* approved deeds or accounts before they went to the registrar or *fadnavis*. The *fadnavis* dated all deeds and orders, prepared a daily waste book, fastened notes to the money-bags, dated the yearly village rent settlements, and brought the books to the head-quarters. The *daftardar*, from the registrar's waste book, made up the ledger and sent a monthly abstract to the head-quarters. The *potnis* kept a record of collections and the balance of cash, and helped in writing the waste book and the ledger. The *potdar*, of whom there were always two, examined the coins. The *sabhasad* kept a register of petty suits and reported them to the *mamlatdar*. The *chitnis* wrote and answered despatches." ¹³ A ninth officer the Jamenis is mentioned in a document of the time of the first Madhava Rao and his duties are enumerated as follows:

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¹³ Bombay Gazetteer, Poona Volume (XVIII), p. 332.

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"(1) The records of the inspection of Jirayet and Bagayet lands by the inspecting officers, should be laid by them before the Jamenis, whose duty it will then be to fix the revenue demand after such enquiry as he may think necessary and to report the fact to the Karbhari.

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(2) The Jamenis should receive all revenue accounts and watch the closing of the accounts and see that the collections and arrears are correctly noted.

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(3) The Jamenis has authority to increase the revenue of a village or to grant remissions, or to reduce the revenue for a term of years.

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(4) Orders for the recovery of arrears from villages should be issued by the Jamenis.

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(5) Kowls for the abatement of revenue should be issued by the Jamenis.

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(6) A ledger showing the amount received and the amount due from each village, should be prepared by the Jamenis from the day-book of the Fadnis." (Joshi's translation.)¹⁴

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¹⁴ P. D., Vol. VII, pp. 123-24.

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These Darakhdars, severally and jointly, served as a check not only upon the Mamlatdar but upon each other as well. A glance at the following two lists enumerating the duties of the Mazumdar and the Daftardar will show how the Mazumdar supervised the work of the Jamenis, Fadnis and Chitnis, and how the Daftardar while auditing the accounts submitted by the Kamavisdar had to explain every matter to the Fadnis. In the year 1764-65 a letter was written to Vyankat Narayan, Mamlatdar of Dharwar, recounting the duties of his Mazumdar, Ragho Gangadhar, as follows:

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(1) He should see that the day-book is balanced every day.

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(2) He should authenticate every letter and account prepared by the Fadnis or Chitnis.

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(3) He should see that the salary registers of sowars and soldiers newly employed are correctly totalled. He should muster every month the sowars and soldiers already in service.

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(4) He should prepare estimates of receipts and expenditure in regard to the portion of the taluka proposed to be entrusted to a Sub-Mamlatdar, and the detailed account to be taken from the Mamlatdar should be received through the Mazumdar.

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(5) Change of Mamlatdars should not be made without his knowledge (B. P. Joshi's Translation).¹⁵

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¹⁵ P. D., Vol. VII, pp. 125-126.

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Another letter in the same year and to the same officer lays down the duties of the Daftardar as follows:

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(1) The day-book should be written by the Fadnis and the ledger should be prepared from it by the Daftardar.

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(2) The annual estimates of receipts and expenditure should be prepared by the Daftardar; the detailed accounts submitted by the Kamavisdars at the end of the year should be examined by him with reference to the records.

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(3) He should enquire into loans advanced, and their recoveries.

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(4) He should examine the accounts relating to the sowars entertained from the Mahal.

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(5) He should explain every matter to the Fadnis, and they both to the officer Vyankatrao Narayan (Mamlatdar). Orders to subordinates should not be issued by the Fadnis direct, but through the Daftardar. During the Fadnis's absence his work should be done by the Daftardar. (Joshi's Translation).¹⁰

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¹⁰ P. D., Vol. VII, pp. 126-27.

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7. *Beheda* and *Rasad*:

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We may now turn to two more measures generally adopted to restrain the Mamlatdar from misgovernment. The first was the payment of a big advance paid at the time of his appointment to be realised later on from the revenue of the district under his charge. This advance served as a security against misconduct and at the same time relieved the Peshwa of his financial difficulties to a certain extent. Interest was however paid on this *rasad* at a rate varying from 1 to 1½ per cent. per month. The second was the *beheda*. It was an estimate of possible income and expenditure most carefully drawn up by experienced officers in the Peshwa's daftar, and with a knowledge of minute details as yet unsurpassed and unequalled. In his revenue collection the Mamlatdar had to be guided by this annual estimate or beheda and in the case of the Sub-Mamlatdar or Kamavisdar under him—the beheda was drawn up by the Mamlatdar's Mazumdar as we have already seen. But all these cautions could not entirely prevent evil practices in the Peshwa's government; and antast or bribe became a regular and quite an ordinary item in their accounts. Elphinstone remarks that "The sources of their profit were concealment of receipts (especially fees, fines, and other undefined collections), false charges for remissions, false musters, non-payment of pensions, and other frauds in expenditure. The grand source of their profit was an extra assessment above the revenue, which was called Sauder Warrid Puttee. It was levied to pay the expenses of the district not provided for by Government, and naturally afforded a great field for speculation; one of the chief of these expenses was called the Durbar Khurch or Untust. This was originally applied secretly to bribe the ministers and auditors. By degrees, their bribes became established fees, and the account was audited like the rest; but as bribes were still required, another increase of collection took place for this purpose; and as the auditors or accountants did not search minutely into these delicate transactions, the Mamlutdar generally collected much more for himself, than he did for his patrons." The Mamlatdar, however, took good care that the imposts might not fall heavy on the rayats, for it was to his interest that they should be well off and, as Elphinstone, himself points out, the only party that suffered was the government.

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The Mamlatdar and the Kamavisdar were generally appointed for short terms, and in Shivaji's time transfer from one district to another was frequent. During the Peshwa period, however, they generally succeeded in getting their term of office repeatedly renewed, unless they were guilty of any serious abuse of their authority; and frequently the Mamlatdar was left in charge of the same district for thirty or forty years. After his death his son might succeed him in his office, not as a matter of right but as one of favour. Consequently the Mamlatdars thought they had permanent interest in the prosperity of their districts, and whatever they did they always remembered that the goose that lays the golden eggs must not be roughly handled. If a bad Mamlatdar intent on present gain at the cost of permanent interest forgot this axiom of good government, he was promptly removed from his office by the Peshwa. (This remark however does not apply to Baji Rao II.)

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The small division called Mahals or Tarfs were also governed on the same principle. A non-hereditary officer, the Havaldar, was checked and assisted by two hereditary officers, Mazumdar and Fadnis in revenue matters. The duties of the Mahal Mazumdar and Mahal Fadnis corresponded to those of the provincial officers of the same names. In addition to these revenue officers there were in every Mahal four militia officers who demand our notice here. The Hashamnavis kept a roll showing each man's name, family name, his native village, arms, and pay. The Asham Fadnis had to keep the accounts of the militia and had also to keep records of the musters if there was no separate officer for that purpose. The Hazirinavis, as the name of his office implies, kept the muster roll, and the Asham Daftardar made the militia ledger book.

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It is needless to say that these officers did not generally interfere in the internal administration of the village. The Mamlatdar or the Kamavisdar assessed the rent for each village in consultation with the Patil, sent a Shibandi force for revenue collection if the Patil asked for any, appointed Panchayets in civil and criminal cases if the Patil refused to do so, and of course entertained complaints against the village officers. In short, they served as a link between the local authorities at the base and the Secretariat at the top.

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IMPERIAL SECRETARIAT

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The Secretariat, called by the Marathas the *Huzur Daftar*, was a very big establishment, employing more than two hundred Karkuns, where records of all branches of the Peshwa's administration were preserved with the utmost care and order. An enquirer could confidently turn to the daftar-records for any information concerning the Peshwa's government, and in fact the materials of the present work are drawn mostly from the same source. "The general contents of the Duftur under the Peshwas," says Mr. J. Macleod,¹ "may be described as follows; *viz.*, all accounts rendered to the Government of the revenue and expenditure of the districts, with the settlements of them by Government; the accounts of districts rendered by the hereditary district officers; and those of villages by village officers, of farms, of customs, etc., accounts of all alienations of public revenue, whether Surinjam, Inam or otherwise, of the pay, rights, and privileges of the Government and village officers; accounts of the strength and pay of troops and the expenses of all civil, military and religious establishments. The Rozkirds (daily registers) were registers of all revenue transactions generally, together with all grants and payments, and more particularly the accounts of all contributions and exactions, levied on foreign states. The whole of which were considered and exhibited in one comprehensive view in the Turjamas." It is said that Nana Fadnavis introduced many improvements in the working of the daftar as well as in the accounts department in general; and it is no small tribute to the ability of the Maratha officers and the Maratha Karkuns that after the English occupation of Poona, documents concerning government transactions of all kinds for a period of eighty-eight years were found tolerably complete in this vast store-house of information. At the head of this great establishment was the Huzur Fadnavis, and it is needless to say that the very nature of this office required a man of the highest ability.

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¹ Appendix to Mr. Elphinstone's Report, p. xxix.

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For convenience the Daftar was divided into several departments, the chief of which were the Chatle Daftar and the Ek Beriz Daftar. The latter department had to deal with accounts of all sorts, and was, therefore, permanently fixed at Poona; while the Chatle Daftar was always under the direct supervision of the Fadnavis.

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The Chatle Daftar was again subdivided into several branches, namely, the Fad, Beheda, Saranjam, etc. The Fad was the Fadnavis's own office. All sanads and orders were issued from this office. Here the Fadnavis checked and passed all accounts, and received informations from other departments. In the Fad were made and kept Rozkirds or daily transactions of all sorts. The Beheda department made the Talebands, Ajamas (estimate), and Beheda (budget) for the Fadnavis's information out of the accounts of income and expenditure annually submitted by the village and district officers. In the Talebands were shown in a small space a complete abstract of the actual receipt and expenditure of the revenue during the past year. The Ajamas or the estimate of possible income and expenditure for the current year was based on the Taleband, and from the information thus carefully collected and classified was framed the Beheda or the authorised budget for the guidance of the Kamavisdars and the Mamlatdars. These Behedas were framed with so much care and accuracy that the district officers found it very difficult to find any fault with them, and had to find out an excuse of exceptional nature for the smallest extra expenditure or remission of revenue. In the Saranjam department were kept accounts of Saranjam or military Jagirs and all Dumalla lands (land under double authority—where more than one person had different rights). Separate departments were entrusted with military accounts and contribution, etc. "But these arrangements, however, varied with the pleasure of the Furnavees, or the business that might occur."

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In the Ek Beriz Daftar at Poona were kept classified accounts from all other departments and here were framed the Tarjuma—showing the total receipt, expenditure and balance of the government income for the year, and Khataunis or "abstracts of all expenditure arranged alphabetically under their proper heads." It is therefore no wonder that armed with the knowledge supplied by their department the daftar-officers successfully supervised the work of the village and district establishments.

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It will not be out of place here to add a sentence or two about the reliability of the daftar-officers, specially because Mr. Macleod has some doubt upon that point. In all cases of proprietorship the Maratha watandar, if he failed to produce his sanad, referred the government official to the daftar. The British officers were on several occasions referred to the Poona daftar for copies of the original grants by the Maratha Jagirdars. Unless they had complete confidence in the authenticity of the papers in the daftar and the honesty of the daftar-officers, they would certainly have not relied so much on the Secretariat for copies of their family papers. Thus writes the then representative of the Parasnis family to Henry Brown "papers relating to our property are in the Marathi Daftar of the Peshwa."² The descendant of Visaji Krishna Biniwale wrote to the same officer "of the old papers we have got copies only which we send for your inspection. The originals will be found in the daftar."³

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² Kaifiyats Yadis, p. 129.

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³ Ibid, p. 154.

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The Daftar, however, was neglected during the administration of that bad prince Baji Rao II and it fell into complete disorder. "The Duftur was not only much neglected," says Macleod, "but its establishment was almost entirely done away and people were even permitted to carry away the records, or do with them what they pleased."⁴

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⁴ This short chapter on the Huzar Daftar is entirely based on Mr. Macleod's account. Sardar Khande Rao Chintaman Mehendale of Poona kindly lent me a copy of a very rare Marathi work published in 1859 and entitled *Iniquities of the Inam Commission in the Presidency of Bombay compiled from the published selections from Govt. Records and other sources exposed for the information of Enamdars, etc.* This work comments adversely on the reliability of the Daftar records, but it should be noted that it was nothing but a party pamphlet and it was its interest to discredit those records.

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According to this work the Peshwa's Daftar was divided into two main departments:
(1) Huzur Daftar.
(2) Mahal Daftar.

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The work entrusted to the Huzur Daftar fell under the following heads: (1) Rozkird, (2) Nemnuk Beheda, (3) Ajmas, (4) Jhadti, (5) Taleband, (6) Ghadni, (7) Tarjuma, (8) Saranjam Yadi and (9) Tharavpat.

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REVENUE ADMINISTRATION

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The revenue policy of the Peshwas was based on the principle of securing the prosperity of the tax-payer. The Maratha financier never forgot that the government can after all only share the wealth of the country with the governed, and although the income of the government can be temporarily raised by exacting a large share, its permanent increase can only be secured by encouraging the people to produce more wealth. True to this principle they often preferred to postpone present enjoyment for future gain. They would watch and help the growth of a new suburb or a new market town without exacting a single pie for *hashil* or customs duties for six or seven years, and then draw a tariff list (with utmost attention to minute details of which the Maratha officer was a master) on the *istawa* principle (that of annual increment). Thus the maximum taxation would again be postponed for another five or seven years. They would pursue the same policy for bringing fallow and waste lands into cultivation, for encouraging profitable industries, and they tried to counteract the evil influences of perpetual disorder and insecurity by making the assessment flexible. As a result of this policy Wellington found the Maratha country highly cultivated and Fitzclarence writing in 1819 described the Peshwa's territory as "one of the finest in India returning richly to his treasury."¹ Captain William Gordon, who was deputed to the Poona court in 1739, was favourably impressed with the revenue policy of the Peshwa. He wrote,—"Bajirao has a great extent of country, to appearance more fertile and valuable than any other I had passed through. *** His territories are well peopled, and the poorer sort, in the farming way, are rendered easy in their rents, which causes his extent of dominion to be in a very flourishing condition, more so than any other in the possession of the Marathas."¹* Even the Jagirdars or feudal Barons, who exercised sovereign authority within their fiefs were not always indifferent to the welfare of their subjects. On the 28th August, 1818, General Munro wrote to Mountstuart Elphinstone,—"All the branches of the Putwurdhu family are popular in the country. They treat the inhabitants with great kindness, and their lands are well cultivated."[16]