Administrative System of the Marathas c8.s3: 3. General Structure of Government

Administrative System of the Marathas c8.s3

Language: English

3. General Structure of Government

c8.s3.1

The village communities in Southern India flourished from the dawn of history. When these democratic institutions first came into existence none can tell.¹ But in the absence of a highly developed central government, as we now have, the village communities served the needs of the time admirably. Shivaji decided to leave them undisturbed in their internal organisation. In fact the village republics exercised almost the same powers, enjoyed the same privileges and underwent the same responsibilities from the time of their origin down to the establishment of the British Government in India, when many of their immunities and privileges were found incompatible with a highly centralised modern government. Over a group of these self-contained units had formerly been placed the Deshmukhs and the Deshpandes. Originally appointed for revenue collection, they gradually made their office hereditary and assumed and exercised almost sovereign authority. The circumstances of the times, and the geographical features of the country, helped this feudal evolution. But Shivaji could not allow this state of things to go on uninterrupted. Feudalism meant the negation of a strong monarchy. Shivaji, therefore, appointed his own revenue officers, but the Deshmukhs and the Deshpandes were left in the enjoyment of their old rights and perquisites. They were on no account to exercise their old tyranny. Rayats were given to understand that henceforth they would have nothing to do with the Desais and the Deshmukhs. To render them altogether harmless Shivaji further prohibited them to build any walled or bastioned castle, and like Henry II of England, demolished some of the strongholds of these local tyrants.¹² "In the provinces," Sabhasad says, "the rayats were not to be subjected to the jurisdiction and regulations of the Zamindar, such as the Deshmukh and the Desai. If they offer to plunder the rayats, by assuming authority [over them], it does not lie in their power. The Adilshahi, the Nizamshahi and the Mughlai Desh were conquered [by Shivaji]. In the Desh all the rayats used to be under the Patil and the Kulkarni of those places, and the Deshmukhs. They used to make the collection and to pay an unspecified sum (as tribute). For a village, where the Mirasdars took one to two thousand (Hons or Rupees ?), (they) used to render two hundred to three hundred to the Government as quit-rent. Therefore the Mirasdar grew wealthy and strengthened (himself) by building bastions, castles and strongholds in the village and enlisting footmen and musketeers. They did not care to wait on the revenue officers. If the revenue officers said that they could pay more revenue (the Mirasdars) stood up to quarrel with them. In this way (they grew) unruly and forcibly misappropriated the (lands in the) Desh. On this account did the Raja demolish the bastions, the castles and the strongholds after conquering the Desh. Where there were important forts, he posted his own garrison. And nothing was left in the hands of the Mirasdars. This done, (he) prohibited all that the Mirasdars used to take at their sweet will, by inam (right) or revenue farming, and fixed the rates of due in cash and grains for the Zamindars, as well as of the rights and the perquisites of the Deshmukh, the Deshkulkarni, and the Patil (and) the Kulkarni, according to the yield of the village. The Zamindars were prohibited to build bastioned castles. (They were to) build houses (and) live (therein). Such were the regulations for the provinces." In this manner the danger of feudal anarchy was to some extent averted.

c8.s3.2

¹ The Maratha village system will be fully described in Book II.

c8.s3.3

¹² Subhasad, pp. 32-33, and Sen, Sivachhatrapati, pp. 37-38.

c8.s3.4

Like the Kamavisdars and the Subhedars of the Peshwa period, the Karkuns, the Tarafdars, the Havaldars and the Subhedars of Shivaji had to look after all the branches of Civil administration.

c8.s3.5

At the head of the government was the king himself, assisted by a council of state. It was known as the Ashta Pradhan Council, as eight ministers had seats in it. These were:

c8.s3.6

1. The Peshwa or the Mukhya Pradhan.
2. The Mazumdar or the Amatya.
3. The Waknis or the Mantri.
4. The Dabir or the Sumanta.
5. The Surnis or the Sachiv.
6. The Pandit Rao, or the Royal Priest.
7. The Senapati or the Commander-in-Chief.
8. The Nyayadhish or the Chief Justice.

c8.s3.7

When this council was first organised, we do not precisely know. At the time of the coronation the eight¹³ 'pradhans' (ministers) had stood on either side of the throne to pour holy water from gold and silver jars and basins, over the king's head.¹⁴ Malhar Ram Rao Chitnis tells us that it was then that the council came into being.¹⁵ These offices, however, were by no means new. Though the Mukhya Pradhan, the Amatya, the Mantri, the Sumanta, the Sachiv and the Senapati were unknown, people were quite familiar with the Peshwa, the Mazumdar, the Waknis, the Dabir, the Surnis, and the Sarnobat. What Shivaji did, was to retain the old posts with new Sanskrit designations. But whether these new designations meant any new power or new responsibility, is not certain. It is, however, significant that an official paper (kanujabta) was drawn in the first year of the *Abhisheka* era to enumerate the duties of the eight Councillors (pradhans) and other heads of departments.¹⁶ But it is quite possible that this paper was drawn up simply to enforce a stricter method in the existing organisation. Sabhasad tells us that the following officers had enjoyed the privilege of taking part in the coronation ceremony as members of the Ashta Pradhan council:

c8.s3.8

¹³ Sabhasad, p. 82; Chitnis, p. 162. Sen, Shivachhatrapati, p. 115.

c8.s3.9

¹⁴ Chitnis, p. 161.

c8.s3.10

¹⁵ But all these offices, existed long before the coronation. By the word Ashtapradhan here, Chitnis, therefore, does not mean the mere offices but the council. In the next sentence he mentions the appointment of the two Secretaries. These were also by no means new appointments. It is quite possible that the old officers were formally reappointed, according to the rites prescribed by the Shastras for the coronation ceremony. See also Lokahitavadi, Aitihasik Goshti, p. 7

c8.s3.11

¹⁶ Sabhasad, p. 83. Sen, Shivachhatrapati, p. 116.

c8.s3.12

1. Moro Pant, son of Trimbak Pant, as Mukhya Pradhan.

c8.s3.13

2. Naro Nilkantha and Ramchandra Nilkantha as joint Amatya.

c8.s3.14

3. The son of Raghunath Rao as Pandit Rao.

c8.s3.15

4. Hambir Rao Mohite as Senapati.

c8.s3.16

5. Dattaji Trimbak as Mantri.

c8.s3.17

6. Ramchandra Pant, son of Trimbakji Sondev Dabir as Sumanta.

c8.s3.18

7. Annaji Pant (Datto) as Sachiv.
8. Niraji Rauji as Nyayadhish.¹⁷

c8.s3.19

¹⁷ Sane, Patreyadi Bagaire, p. 357. Also see Sanads and Letters edited by P. V. Mawji and D. V. Parasnis, pp. 123-24.

c8.s3.20

These men had already held these offices for some time past. Sabhasad, while describing the coronation, refers simply to their new Sanskrit designations, but does not say that these posts were newly created. It is quite possible that Chitnis also had in his mind the introduction of Sanskrit designations when he wrote of the Raja's decision of appointing a council of eight. Both Sabhasad and Chitnis make frequent mention of the past incumbents of these offices. Sabhasad, for example, says that one Sham Rao Nilkanth was Moro Trimbak Pingle's¹⁸ predecessor in the Peshwaship.¹⁹ Shivaji's first Sarnobat was one Tukoji Chor Maratha.²⁰ He was succeeded by Mankoji Dahatonde.²¹ We do not know why Tukoji lost his master's confidence, but after the conquest of Jawli, the chief command of the army was conferred on Netaji Palkar²² as Mankoji had in the interval died. Netaji was dismissed for his failure to succour Panhala,²³ and an enterprising cavalry officer, Kadtaji Gujar, obtained the Sarnobatship with the title of Pratap Rao. Finally after Pratap Rao's heroic death in a hard-fought battle, his lieutenant Hasaji Mohite was promoted to be Commander-in-Chief.²⁴ It was this Hasaji or Hambir Rao, the fifth or according to another account, the sixth Sarnobat,²⁵ who stood with a silver jar filled with milk at the time of the ceremonial bath, during Shivaji's coronation.²⁶ Similarly Nilo Sondev and Gangaji Mangaji had served as Surnis and Waknis respectively, before Annaji Datto and Dattaji Trimbak.²⁷ It is also certain that both before and after his coronation, Shivaji held a council of these and other officers. To cite only one instance, when Afzal Khan invaded his infant kingdom, Shivaji called a council of his principal ministers, among whom figured not only Moro Pant, Gangaji Mangaji, Netaji Palkar and Raghunath Ballal, (most of them afterwards members of the Ashta Pradhan Council), but also men like Gomaji Naik, Krishnaji Naik and Subhanji Naik.²⁸ It does not appear, therefore, that the council was first organised at the time of the coronation. Nor can it be maintained that the Ashta Pradhan Council owed its origin to the creative genius of Shivaji. The Persian designation of such officers as the Dabir, the Surnis, the Waknis, and the Mazumdar clearly shows that analogous offices did exist under the Muhammadan governments of the south. Mention has also been made of such councils in old Hindu works on polity. In the Shukraniti, for example, we find that the chief Priest and the Chief Justice should have seats in the cabinet, and this was a special feature of Shivaji's council.²⁹

c8.s3.21

¹⁸ I do not call him Moro Trimal as he is described as Trimbak suta Moreshwar, Moreshwar son of Trimbak, in the couplet inscribed on his seal.

c8.s3.22

¹⁹ Sabhasad, pp. 7, 8, 11; Peshwas' Diaries, Vol. I, p. 41.

c8.s3.23

²⁰ Sabhasad, p. 8.

c8.s3.24

²¹ Ibid, 9.

c8.s3.25

²² Ibid, 11.

c8.s3.26

²³ Shabhasad, p. 59.

c8.s3.27

²⁴ Ibid, p. 79.

c8.s3.28

²⁵ J. N. Sarkar says that according to Narsin Shenvi Anand Rao succeeded Pratap Rao Gujar.

c8.s3.29

²⁶ Chitnis, p. 162.

c8.s3.30

²⁷ Sabhasad, p. 11. Sen, Sivachhatrapati, pp. 7-8.

c8.s3.31

²⁸ Sabhasad, p. 14. Sen, Sivachhatrapati, p. 11.

c8.s3.32

²⁹ A more detailed discussion is reserved for Book III.

c8.s3.33

When the Peshwas rose to power, most of these offices had become hereditary, but in Shivaji's time, the pradhans (councillors) were not appointed for life. They were liable to be dismissed at the king's pleasure and could not transmit their office to their sons or brothers. In the Peshwa period principal officers generally became founders of new families. This was impossible in Shivaji's time. First, because he took good care to keep all offices, both high and low, free from a hereditary character. We have seen how six Commanders-in-Chief had been in succession appointed by Shivaji, but not in a single case had he selected for the post a near relative of the last incumbent. Suryaji Malsure was no doubt appointed Subhedar of the Mawali forces, after the death of his brother Tanaji; but in this case the officer in question had rendered such distinguished service as fully deserved public recognition.³⁰ Secondly, because Shivaji made it a rule not to assign any Jagir to any office, civil or military. It was strictly laid down that no soldier or military officer should have any thing to do with the revenue collection of the country and there was, in those days of anarchy and war, hardly any officer who was not required to take up arms. In Sabhasad's account we find that, "the balance of their dues (was paid by) 'varats' (orders) either on the Huzur (central government) or on the district (establishments). In this manner were their annual accounts punctually settled. Mokasa mahals or villages with absolute rights should on no account be granted to the (men in the) army, the militia and the garrisons of the fort. Every payment should be made by 'varats' or with cash from the treasury. None but the Karkuns had authority over the lands. All payments to the army, the militia, and the garrison, should be made by the Karkuns."³¹ These wise regulations had their desired effect, and arrested for the time being the growth of feudalism in Maharashtra. In the words of Ranade, "None of the great men, who distinguished themselves in Shivaji's time, were able to hand over to their descendants large landed estates. Neither Moropant Pingle nor Abaji Sondev, nor Ragho Ballal or Datto Annaji or Niraji Raoji, among the Brahmans, nor the Malusares or Kanks, or Pratap Rao Gujar, Netaji Palkar, Hambirrao Mohite or the Maratha *Sardars*, were able to found ancient families such as those which Shahu's ministers in the early part of the eighteenth century succeeded in doing."³²

c8.s3.34

³⁰ Sabhasad, pp. 56-57. Sen, Sivachhatrapati, pp. 72-74.

c8.s3.35

³¹ Sabhasad, p. 80. Sen, Sivachhatrapati, pp. 33-34.

c8.s3.36

³² Ranade, R. M. P., pp. 129-130.

c8.s3.37

Though we do not know precisely when the Ashta Pradhan Council came into being, yet we have a fairly accurate knowledge of what was expected of the pradhans. In a paper³³ already referred to, their duties have been clearly defined. From this and other state papers, it does not appear that Shivaji aimed at a bureaucratic form of government. A great Maharashtra scholar, the late Justice Ranade, has thrown clear hints that the Ashta Pradhan Council, in its essential characteristics, bore a striking resemblance to the Viceroy's Executive Council. Says the great savant, "The *Peshwa* was Prime Minister, next to the king and was at the head of both the civil and military administrations, and sat first on the right hand below the throne. The *Senapati* was in charge of the military administration, and sat first on the left side. *Amatya* and *Sachiv* sat next to the *Peshwa*, while the *Mantri* sat next below the *Sachiv* and was in charge of the king's private affairs. The *Sumant* was Foreign Secretary, and sat below the *Senapati* on the left. Next came *Panditrao*, who had charge of the ecclesiastical department, and below him on the left side sat the Chief Justice. It will be seen from these details that the Ashta Pradhan system has its counterpart in the present constitution of the Government of India. The Governor-General and Viceroy occupies the place of the *Peshwa*; next comes the Commander-in-Chief of the army. The Finance and Foreign Ministers come next. In the Government of India, the Executive Council makes no room for the head of the ecclesiastical department, or for the Chief Justice on one side and the Private Secretary on the other, and in their place sit the Member in Charge of the Home Department, the Legal Member, and the Public Works Minister. These variations are due to the difference of circumstances, but the conception which lies at the bottom of both systems is the same of having a council of the highest officers of the State, sitting together to assist the king in the proper discharge of his duties.³⁴

c8.s3.38

³³ Sane, Patre yadi Ragaire, p. 357.

c8.s3.39

³⁴ Ranade, R. M. P., pp. 126-127.

c8.s3.40

Although there seems to be some apparent resemblance between the Ashta Pradhan Council of Shivaji and the Executive Council of the Viceroy and the Governor-General of India, the principles underlying the two are by no means identical. The Government in India is widely known to be a bureaucracy. The subordinate officers are responsible to the heads of their departments and these departmental heads are mainly responsible for initiating the policy in the particular branches of administration entrusted to them. Although they can and do deliberate upon grave questions affecting departments other than theirs, there is a clear-cut division of duties. The Law Member is never called upon to lead a military expedition, nor is the Commander-in-Chief required to hear a title suit. But six out of the eight members of Shivaji's council had to perform military duties whenever necessary, and all the eight had, as occasions arose, to attend a Hazir Majalasi to hear appeals in both civil and criminal cases. The first Pandit Rao³⁵ had to render diplomatic service, when he was sent on an embassy to Jai Singh. This is not, however, the only difference. The Viceroy, though he can in theory override the decisions of his Executive Council, is in practice expected to be guided by it. But neither his subjects, nor his officers ever expected that Shivaji should always be guided by the wisdom of the Councillors. He was not bound to consult them, unless he felt inclined to do so. The ministers were frequently absent on distant expeditions and some of them were further encumbered with the heavy work of provincial governments. Shivaji's ministers cannot, therefore, be regarded as heads of departments and his Government was by no means a bureaucracy. It was, if anything, an autocracy. But the autocrat, fortunately for his people, was a practical statesman and acted as a "Benevolent Despot." His ministers were his servants, proud to carry out his instructions and his government had more resemblance with those of his Hindu and Muhammadan predecessors than with the British Government of to-day.

c8.s3.41

³⁵ Sabhasad, p. 41. Sen, Sivachhatrapati, pp. 50-51.

Linked texts (1)

Ciṭṇīs bakhar — Malhār Rāmrāv Ciṭṇīs 1810, Marathi