Caste in India: The Facts and the System c8.s7: VI. General Survey: The Caste System and the Hindu Mind

Caste in India: The Facts and the System c8.s7

Language: English

VI. General Survey: The Caste System and the Hindu Mind

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FOR a long time it was believed, on the evidence of Plato and Herodotus, that Egypt must have been governed by the caste-system. This view is abandoned to-day by the best judges, and appears to be definitely contradicted by indigenous records. The Greeks, little used to vast hereditary organisms united by privilege of rank or community of function, might, when they met with more or less distinct types, easily exaggerate their importance and extent. Up to the present India alone has revealed a universal caste-system in the sense in which we have observed and defined it. At most, only accidental traces and germs of analogous institutions are found elsewhere; they are nowhere generalized or co-ordinated into a system.

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In Lacedaemon and elsewhere the Greeks know several instances of hereditary functions and trades. In spite of the uncertainties which obscure their interpretation, the names borne by the four Ionic tribes (*phylai*) of Attica are certainly professional: soldiers, goatherds, artisans,¹ but they are certainly not castes. The example proves at least that Āryan tradition could, under the influence of a favourable situation, incline towards the caste; a lesson which it is well to bear in mind.

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¹ Schömann, *Griech. Alterth.*, ed. 1861, I, pp. 327 et seq.

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A social institution which dominates an immense country, which is interwoven in its whole past, has necessarily more than one cause. It would be a mistake to confine it within the too precise limits of a single deduction. Such strong currents are composed of numerous tributary streams. There are many other countries where an immigrant race has found itself in juxtaposition with natives whom it has conquered and dispossessed without this situation giving birth to castes. Other peoples have known strong class-distinctions, yet the caste has remained strange to them. Theocracy fashions other settings to its purpose. The system in India must therefore result from the combined action of several factors, the most important of which I have tried to indicate.

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Let us now summarize the essential points of this investigation.

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We take the Āryans on their entry into India. They lived under the influence of the old laws common to all the branches of the race. They were divided into tribes, clans, and families; varying in size, the groups were all governed by corporate organizations whose general traits were identical and whose tie was an increasingly close consanguinity. The age of equality, pure and simple, between clan and clan, tribe and tribe, was past; military and religious prestige had begun their work. Certain groups, favoured by birth and by good fortune in war, joined to form an aristocratic class which laid claim to power. Religious rites grew in intricacy, so that special skill and technical training were necessary. A sacerdotal class was born which based its pretensions on the more or less legendary genealogies connecting its branches with illustrious sacrificers of the past. The rest of the Āryans were merged in a single category, in the midst of which the various groups operated in their own autonomy and under their own corporate laws. From the beginning religious ideas dominated the whole of life, and an already powerful priesthood now redoubled the strictness and importance of religious scruples.

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The Āryans advanced into their new domain. They came into collision with a dark-skinned race of inferior civilization, whom they subdued. This antagonism, together with anxiety for their own safety and contempt for the vanquished, heightened the inherent exclusiveness of the victors and strengthened all the beliefs and prejudices which protected the purity of the sections into which they were divided. The aboriginal population was relegated to a confused mass attached to its masters only by loose ties of subordination. The religious ideas introduced by the invaders penetrated this mass more or less deeply, but never enough to raise it to their level. But the invaders scattered, spreading over vast spaces where their settlements were hardly ever limited by any natural boundaries; and the original groups separated, weakened by the events of the struggle. The rigour of the genealogical principle which united them was in consequence compromised, and the fragments followed geographical or other considerations in the process of forming themselves anew.

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Little by little the demands for a less shifting existence became insistent. A more sedentary life was established in villages engaged in pastoral and agricultural pursuits which were originally founded on a basis of kinship, for the laws of family and of the clan preserved supreme authority, and the traditional usages sanctioned by religion continued to be observed. More settled habits developed the needs and trades of a civilization which was ripe for greater expansion. The professional corporations were in their turn caught in the network, either because the village-community brought about community of occupation, or because the scattered representatives of the same profession in neighbouring districts obeyed an imperious need by modelling themselves on the only type of organization in use around them.

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In time two facts emerged: admixture, only half acknowledged, occurred between the races, and the Āryan ideas of purity gained more and more ground amongst this hybrid population and even amongst the purely aboriginal peoples. From thence arose two categories of scruples, the subdivisions of which were multiplied according to the varying degrees of impurity either of descent or occupation. While the ancient principles of family life were perpetuated, the grouping factors were diversified—that is to say, function, religion, vicinity, and so forth, side by side with the primitive principle of consanguinity, behind which they more or less conceal themselves. The groups grew and overlapped. Under the double influence of their own traditions and of the ideas which they borrowed from Āryan civilization, the aboriginal tribes themselves, in proportion as they renounced an isolated and savage life, accelerated the influx of new sections. Caste came into existence from that time onwards. We have seen how in its various degrees it was slowly substituted for the family government from which it is derived.

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A political power might have brought these organisms together under a regular system, but no political constitution was evolved, even in conception. This cannot be regarded as surprising.

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It would find no favour with the sacerdotal power, whose domination it would threaten, and sacerdotalism exercised a very strong and consistent influence, paralysing even the power of the military aristocracy. The configuration of the country does not constitute natural centres of concentration, for the boundaries are all vague. Pastoral life long maintained a spirit of strict tradition, and was untouched by any marked love of action. The number of the vanquished was great. Crushed rather than absorbed, they were slowly invaded by sacerdotal propaganda rather than subjugated by a sudden conquest. With some modifications this subdued population kept, especially where localized and isolated, much of its old organization. The mere fact of its presence in the country and the example of its extremely primitive institutions, which merged so easily into the somewhat crude organization of the immigrants, formed another obstacle to the foundation of a genuine political power. There was no vestige of a state.

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Amid this confusion the sacerdotal class alone, in spite of its subdivisions, retained a strong corporate spirit and possessed a power which was both moral and highly efficacious. This it used to strengthen and extend its privileges, and also to establish under its supremacy some kind of order and cohesion. It generalized and codified existing conditions into an ideal system which it strove to have sanctioned by law. This was the legal caste-system. In it was amalgamated the existing situation with the stubborn traditions of the past, in which class-hierarchy had laid the foundations of its power, now so greatly increased.

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This system, sprung from a mixture of arbitrary pretensions and authentic facts, became a force in its turn. Not only was it carried by the Brahmans as a dogma into parts of the country where it was assimilated at a later date, but everywhere, thanks to the immense authority wielded by its patrons, it reacted through ideas upon practice. Idealism tended to be imposed as the strict rule of duty. But the distance between fact and theory was too great ever to admit of a complete fusion of the two.

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What interests us is the path followed by the institution in its spontaneous growth. I need therefore go no farther.

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The caste is, to my mind, the normal continuation of ancient Āryan institutions taking their form according to the variations of conditions and environment which they encountered in India. It would be as inexplicable without this traditional foundation as it would be unintelligible without the racial admixtures which have crossed in it and without the circumstances which have moulded it.

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Let there be no misunderstanding. I do not pretend to maintain that the caste-system as we observe it to-day, with its infinite sections differing in nature and consistency, is limited to the development, logical and purely organic, of the primitive Āryan elements only. Groups of various origins and variable structure have at all times entered it and are still multiplying : clans of invaders who blaze the trail of successive conquests, aboriginal tribes tardily emerged from their wild isolation, casual subdivisions either of castes properly so called or of assimilated groups. Indeed, it is impossible to doubt that those mixtures which, aggravated by many permutations, give to the caste to-day so disconcerting and elusive a character appeared at an early date. Although they have become increasingly marked, they nevertheless began at the time when the system was in process of formation. I have already said, and I make a point of repeating, that if we condense a general conclusion into a summary formula there is a risk of appearing to exaggerate its principle ; whether it arise from a desire for precision or the charm of novelty, there is danger of falsifying a just conception by stretching it too far. I do not wish to be suspected of being carried away, for I am on my guard against that danger.

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Whatever external influences they may have suffered, and whatever disturbances the chances of history may have wrought, the Āryans of India have, in my opinion, drawn from their own sources the essential elements of the caste, such as they practised, conceived, and finally co-ordinated. The system under which India has lived is not a purely economic organization of trades nor a chaos of strange and hostile tribes and races, nor again a simple class-hierarchy, but a mingling of all these, united by the common inspiration which dominates the functioning of all the groups, and by the community of characteristic ideas and prejudices which govern their order of precedence. This is because the family-constitution, surviving through all evolutions, governing first the Āryans, then spreading with their influence to impose itself even on groups of independent origin, has been the pivot of a slow transformation.

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I have been careful to remember that heterogeneous elements may have cut across it. Moreover, once complete in its essential traits, it goes without saying that it was subject, like all ageing systems in which tradition is no longer revivified by contact with a living consciousness of its origins, to the influence of analogy. The principles which observers have thought to discover in it, and conclusions based on false premises, have both played their part in it. Although accidental or secondary, these modifications have not failed to produce an apparent confusion in the facts. But I will not press the point; if needs be, the sources can be found in the details which I have had occasion to indicate in passing.

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Even confining ourselves to the period of formation, it would be satisfactory to be able to fix the dates. What I have said about literary tradition will explain why I have nothing precise to offer. Ancient institutions are only imbued with a new spirit by imperceptible degrees; movements which may, according to circumstances, take place at different rates in various regions, only become visible when the earlier order has grown completely unrecognizable. They are obscure because they are slow; we cannot attribute exact dates to them. At most we might flatter ourselves that we had determined the moment when the Brahmanic system, which theoretically governed the caste, received its final form. The claim would still be too ambitious. But we may take comfort from the fact that it would not leave us much better off if it is true that this system rather sums up the ideal of the dominant caste than reflects the true situation.

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Even as regards the Veda, the value of the indications which it vouchsafes are anything but definite. We need to know whether it really exhausts the whole of contemporary facts, and whether it reproduces them faithfully and intact, a matter of which I do not feel that we are at all sure. The one thing certain is that these indications display, still standing out in full relief, that class-hierarchy which later was resolved into the caste-system. It is, however, indubitable that already in the Vedic period causes were at work which by their combined and continuous action were to graft a new order on the old Āryan trunk.

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The Āryans of India and those of the classical world started from the same origins. How different were the developments in the two cases!

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In the beginning they were the same groups, governed by the same beliefs and usages. In Greece and Italy these little societies joined together and organized themselves into an ordered system. Each group preserved its complete autonomy in its own sphere of action, but the higher federation which constituted the city upheld common interests and co-ordinated common action. Chaos took shape under the touch of the Greeks; isolated organisms were resolved into a wider unity, and as it was perfected, the new idea which was its latent soul, the political idea, began to take shape. Like the caste, the city sprang from the common primitive constitution. Moulded on the same religious rules and traditions, but inspired by new necessities, it evolved a new principle of organization. It showed itself capable of expansion and of leaping the barriers which had supported but also confined its first steps. Later, it was to suffice in modified form for the needs of the most profound revolutions in life and government.

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In India the caste continues the customs of antiquity; it even develops them in several respects along their logical lines; but it loses something of the impulse which had created the primitive groups, and does not renew its spirit. Diverse conceptions mingle with or replace the genealogical tie which bound the first societies. In thus modifying and becoming castes they find no regulating principle within themselves, but overlap, each isolated in its own jealous autonomy. The social order is immense, without defined limits or organic life—a confused mass of little independent societies reduced to a common level.

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The classical language of India is distinguished from cognate languages by a striking peculiarity. The finite verb finds small place in the sentence; the thought is unfolded in long, compound phrases, often very ambiguously related. Instead of a solid syntactic construction in which the design is perceptible and the stresses stand out of them selves in clearly defined clauses, the sentence boasts no more than a loose structure in which the constituent parts of the thought, merely juxtaposed, are lacking in relief. The religious beliefs of India are scarcely ever presented in positive dogmas. In the vague outlines of an imperfectly defined pantheism opposition and divergences rise for a moment only, then sink back into the shifting mass. Contradictions are quickly resolved in a conciliatory syncretism which weakens schisms, and all differences are cloaked by a convenient orthodoxy. Nowhere is there categoric doctrine, consistent and uncompromising. On the social plane an analogous phenomenon appears in the caste-system. Everywhere is the same spectacle of plastic impotence.

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Whatever vigour it may have borrowed from external and historic circumstances, the caste is clearly the fruit of the Hindu mind. The social organization of India is to the structure of the antique cities what a Hindu poem is to a Greek tragedy. In practical life as well as in art the Hindu genius rarely shows itself capable of organization—that is to say, of measure and harmony. In the caste it has exhausted all its efforts in maintaining and strengthening a network of closed groups, without common action or mutual reaction, recognizing in the long run no other motive-power than the unchecked authority of a sacerdotal class which has constituted itself the people's sole director. Under the levelling rule of Brahmanism the castes move as the episodes jostle one another haphazard in the vague unity of an epic narrative. It is enough that an artificial system theoretically masks their incoherence.

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The destinies of caste are, rightly considered, an instructive chapter in the psychology of India.

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Methuen & Co. Ltd., 36 Essex Street, London, W.C.2 the *Goths*, the *Vandals*, the *Suevi*, the *Burgundians*, the *Alani*, the *Huns*, the *Franks*, the *Saxons*, the *Thuringians*, the *Rugians*, and the *Heruli*. The names of these tribes are familiar to the reader, but their origin, their migrations, and their settlements are involved in the deepest obscurity. The most probable opinion is that they were all of German or Scythian extraction, and that they had been driven from their native seats by the pressure of the Huns, a formidable nation of Tartars, who had crossed the Volga and the Tanais, and were advancing with rapid strides towards the frontiers of the Roman empire.

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The first of these nations that crossed the Danube was the *Goths*. They were divided into two great branches, the *Visigoths* or Western Goths, and the *Ostrogoths* or Eastern Goths. The Visigoths, under the conduct of Fritigern, implored the protection of the emperor Valens, and were permitted to settle in the province of Thrace. But the perfidy of the Roman governors, and the insolence of the Roman soldiers, soon provoked them to rebellion. They defeated the imperial armies, and Valens himself perished in the battle of Hadrianople.

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The death of Valens was followed by the accession of Theodosius, who, by his wisdom and valour, restored the discipline of the Roman legions, and compelled the Goths to accept a peace, which was rather a truce than a permanent settlement. The Goths, however, remained in the heart of the empire, and their presence was a constant source of danger and alarm. They were no longer the rude barbarians who had first crossed the Danube; they had learned the arts of war and the policy of the Romans, and they were ready to take advantage of any opportunity to assert their independence.

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The reign of Theodosius was the last period of the glory of the Roman empire. After his death, the empire was divided between his two sons, Arcadius and Honorius. Arcadius reigned in the East, and Honorius in the West. The division was fatal to the interests of the state. The two brothers were weak and indolent, and they were governed by their ministers and favourites. The Goths, under the command of Alaric, took advantage of the weakness of the government, and invaded Italy. They besieged and took Rome, and the eternal city, which had for so many centuries been the mistress of the world, was plundered by the barbarians.

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The fall of Rome was a shock to the whole civilized world. It was the end of an era, and the beginning of a new and darker age. The Goths, after the death of Alaric, retired from Italy, and settled in Gaul and Spain, where they founded kingdoms which were destined to last for several centuries. The Vandals, under the command of Genseric, crossed into Africa, and established a powerful kingdom, which for a time threatened the security of the Mediterranean. The Franks, under the command of Clovis, conquered Gaul, and laid the foundations of the French monarchy. The Saxons, under the command of Hengist and Horsa, invaded Britain, and established the kingdoms of the Heptarchy.

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लाल बहादुर शास्त्री राष्ट्रीय प्रशासन अकादमी, पुस्तकालय L.B.S. National Academy of Administration, Library मसूरी MUSSOORIE 103189 यह पुस्तक निम्नांकित तारीख तक वापिस करनी है। This book is to be returned on the date last stamped

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L I B R A R Y LAL BAHADUR SHASTRI National Academy of Administration MUSSOORIE

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Linked texts (1)

Veda — Sanskrit