[Pramāṇa](https://indike.org/pramana/) › [Studies](https://indike.org/pramana/ins) › [Polity, law and society](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity) › [Shudras in Ancient India: A Social History of the Lower Order down to circa A.D. 600](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.sharma-1958) › c7 # Shudras in Ancient India: A Social History of the Lower Order down to circa A.D. 600 c7: Contents Śūdras in Ancient India: A Social History of the Lower Order down to circa A.D. 600 c7 - **Language:** English ### Contents ### [c7.1](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.sharma-1958.c7.1) Preface to the Second Edition v Preface to the First Edition vii Abbreviations ix Roman Equivalents of Nāgarī letters xiii ### [c7.2](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.sharma-1958.c7.2) CHAPTERS ### [c7.3](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.sharma-1958.c7.3) I. Historiography and Approach ### [c7.4](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.sharma-1958.c7.4) Western interest in ancient Indian society 1 The place of the śūdras in writings on ancient society 3 Stating the questions and indicating the method ### [c7.5](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.sharma-1958.c7.5) II. Origin ### [c7.6](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.sharma-1958.c7.6) Racial import of ārya 9 Difference between the Dāsas and Dasyus 10 Fight between the Āryan and the pre-Āryan tribes 12 Inter-tribal struggle among the Āryans 16 The Paṇis 19 Social adjustment between the Āryans and the pre-Aryan chalcolithic people 21 Dāsa as ‘Āryan’ tribe / slave in the age of Ṛgveda 24 Mass migration of the Āryans attested by linguistic evidence and also by archaeology 27 Absence of sharp class divisions in Ṛgvedic society. 29 High status of artisans 31 The Puruṣasūkta and the śūdras as a social order 32 Śūdras as a tribe 35 Śūdras as an Āryan tribe 37 Were the śūdras originally kṣatriyas? 40 Etymological derivation of the term śūdra 42 The status of the śūdra-varṇa at the time of its origin 44 ### [c7.7](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.sharma-1958.c7.7) III. Tribe versus Varṇa (c. 1000—500 B.C.) ### [c7.8](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.sharma-1958.c7.8) Later Vedic literature and Painted Grey Ware archaeology 46 Śūdras as serving class 48 Śūdras as ‘serfs’ and ‘slaves’ 52 Dignity of manual work 53 Śūdra \*ratnins\* in the royal coronation 54 Śūdras in the \*rājasūya\* rituals 56 Śūdra soldiers in the \*aśvamedha\* sacrifice 59 King’s desire for the support of all the four varṇas 61 Exclusion of the śūdra from some coronation rituals 62 An \*Aitareya Brāhmaṇa\* passage regarding the śūdras 64 Marital relations between the higher varṇas and śūdras/slaves 68 Beginning of the assimilation of non-Aryan tribes 71 The śūdra and \*upanayana\* 73 The śūdra and Vedic sacrifice 78 Śūdra’s participation in some religious rites 79 Gods worshipped by the śūdras 81 Greater evidence against the śūdra’s participation in the Vedic sacrifice 83 Contradiction in the position of the śūdras 87 Material culture and constraints on class formation 88 ### [c7.9](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.sharma-1958.c7.9) IV. Servility and Disabilities (c. 600—c. 300 B.C.) ### [c7.10](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.sharma-1958.c7.10) Nature of the Dharmasūtras and early Pāli texts 90 Material background from NBP archaeology 95 Appropriation of land and labour 96 Clear definition of the śūdras as a serving class 98 Crafts and craftsmen 92 Śūdras as agricultural labourers 102 Slaves and hired labourers in production 103 Living conditions of the śūdras 106 ### [c7.11](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.sharma-1958.c7.11) Dāsas, pessas, kammakaras and bhaṭakas 108 Economic disabilities according to the Dharmaśūtras 112 Śūdras as primary producers; their living standards 114 Comparison with Greek slaves and helots 116 Politico-legal discriminations 116 Social disabilities 124 Exclusion from the rite of upanayana and from education 133 Exclusion from sacrifices and sacraments 134 Contempt of the higher varṇas for manual occupations 137 Five despised castes of the early Pāli texts 138 Origin of untouchability 144 Religious reforming movements and the śūdras 146 End of the ambiguous position of the śūdras 152 Śūdra reaction to disabilities 154 ### [c7.12](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.sharma-1958.c7.12) V. State Control and the Servile Order ### [c7.13](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.sharma-1958.c7.13) (c. 300.—c. 200 B.C.) ### [c7.14](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.sharma-1958.c7.14) The date and authenticity of the Arthaśāstra of Kauṭilya 157 The meaning of the term śūdrakarṣakaprāya 161 Slaves and agricultural labourers in state production 163 Employment, control and wages of the artisans 166 High posts as the preserve of the three higher varṇas 172 Śūdras as spies and soldiers 173 Varṇa legislation of Kauṭilya 174 Status of the śūdra vis-a-vis slaves in Kauṭilya 177 Dāsa and āhitaka 178 Manumission and treatment of slaves 179 Mauryan society, a slave-owning society 182 Aśoka's vyavahāra-samatā and daṇḍa-samatā 183 Marriage practices of the śūdras and the formation of mixed castes 184 ### [c7.15](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.sharma-1958.c7.15) Religious condition of the śūdras 187 General conduct of the lower orders 189 ### [c7.16](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.sharma-1958.c7.16) VI. Crisis in the Old Order (\*c.\* 200 B.C.—\*c.\* A.D. 300) ### [c7.17](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.sharma-1958.c7.17) Sources for the post-Mauryan period 191 Manu on the approximation of the śūdras with vaiśyas 192 Artisans in the context of commerce and handicrafts 195 Epigraphic and literary records on artisans 199 Manu's economic measures against the śūdras 201 Wages and living conditions of the labourers 204 Adverse position of the śūdras in law and polity 207 Severe punishments for śūdras offending against members of the superior varṇas 211 Discrimination against the śūdra regarding inheritance, adultery and social intercourse 214 Śūdras and slaves in Manu 216 Manu's ban on social intercourse between the śūdra and the brāhmaṇa 220 Marriage forms followed by the vaiśyas and the śūdras 223 Sudden increase in mixed castes in Manu 225 Untouchables in Manu 227 Manu on śūdra's exclusion from Vedic studies and performance of religious rites 230 Some religious practices of the śūdras and influence of Vaiṣṇavism 232 Role of the śūdras in the crisis reflected by the descriptions of the Kali age 233 Manu's violent anti-śūdra measures 236 Signs of weakening in the servile status of the śūdras 240 ### [c7.18](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.sharma-1958.c7.18) VII. Peasanthood and Religious Rights (\*c.\* A.D. 300-600) ### [c7.19](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.sharma-1958.c7.19) Sources for the Gupta period 245 Śūdras as wage earners 248 Weakening of the slave system 252 ### [c7.20](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.sharma-1958.c7.20) Emergence of śūdra peasants 257 Causes of the śūdra peasanthood 260 Position of artisans 262 Śūdra traders 267 The place of śūdras in the political organisation of Gupta times 268 Continuance of varṇa distinctions in the administration of law and justice 269 Lessening of discriminations in the administration of criminal law and military recruitment 274 The śūdra hostility to the existing social order 279 Some improvement in the social status of the śūdras 281 Continuance of the brāhmaṇa boycott of the śūdra's food 283 Food habits of the śūdras 285 Marriage practices of the śūdras 286 Mixed castes 289 The condition of the untouchables 290 Education of the śūdras 293 Religious rights and sacraments for the śūdras 295 Medieval texts on the social and religious conduct of the śūdras 305 The śūdra's right of making gifts 306 The contribution of Vaiṣṇavism and Śaivism to the religious elevation of the śūdras 307 Significance of the enlargement of religious rights of the śūdras 312 ### [c7.21](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.sharma-1958.c7.21) VIII. Change and Continuity ### [c7.22](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.sharma-1958.c7.22) Main phases in history of the position of the śūdras down to \*circa\* A.D. 600 314 Basic servility 320 Causes of the comparative calmness of the śūdras 321 ### [c7.23](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.sharma-1958.c7.23) Appendix I Date of the \*Manu Smṛti\* with Special Reference to the tenth Chapter 326 ### [c7.24](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.sharma-1958.c7.24) Appendix II Proliferation of Servile and Peasant Castes 331 ### [c7.25](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.sharma-1958.c7.25) Bibliography 347 ### [c7.26](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.sharma-1958.c7.26) Index (Sanskrit, Pāli and Prākrit Words) 367 ### [c7.27](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.sharma-1958.c7.27) General Index 372 --- Source: [https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.sharma-1958.c7](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.sharma-1958.c7) · Pramāṇa