[Pramāṇa](https://indike.org/pramana/) › [Studies](https://indike.org/pramana/ins) › [Reference works](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference) › [An Encyclopaedia of Indian Archaeology](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989) › v1.c11 # An Encyclopaedia of Indian Archaeology v1.c11: 6 Domestic and Miscellaneous Objects An Encyclopaedia of Indian Archaeology v1.c11 - **Language:** English ## Contents - [v1.c11.s1 6.1 Awls](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c11.s1) — 5 parts - [v1.c11.s2 6.2 Axes and Adzes (Metallic)](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c11.s2) — 9 parts - [v1.c11.s3 6.3 Bells](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c11.s3) — 4 parts - [v1.c11.s4 6.4 Bullae](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c11.s4) — 4 parts - [v1.c11.s5 6.5 Chisels](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c11.s5) — 4 parts - [v1.c11.s6 6.6 Fish-hooks](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c11.s6) — 3 parts - [v1.c11.s7 6.7 Games and Amusement](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c11.s7) — 4 parts - [v1.c11.s8 6.8 Hammers](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c11.s8) — 2 parts - [v1.c11.s9 6.9 Hoes](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c11.s9) — 2 parts - [v1.c11.s10 6.10 Knives](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c11.s10) — 3 parts - [v1.c11.s11 6.11 Lamps](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c11.s11) — 4 parts - [v1.c11.s12 6.12 Locks and Keys](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c11.s12) — 2 parts - [v1.c11.s13 6.13 Masks](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c11.s13) — 7 parts - [v1.c11.s14 6.14 Nails](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c11.s14) — 2 parts - [v1.c11.s15 6.15 Needles](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c11.s15) — 3 parts - [v1.c11.s16 6.16 Net-sinkers](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c11.s16) — 3 parts - [v1.c11.s17 6.17 Ovens](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c11.s17) — 6 parts - [v1.c11.s18 6.18 Ploughshares](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c11.s18) — 2 parts - [v1.c11.s19 6.19 Querns, Mullers, Pestles, Mortars](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c11.s19) — 2 parts - [v1.c11.s20 6.20 Razors](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c11.s20) — 3 parts - [v1.c11.s21 6.21 Saws](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c11.s21) — 2 parts - [v1.c11.s22 6.22 Sickles](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c11.s22) — 2 parts - [v1.c11.s23 6.23 Sling-balls](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c11.s23) — 2 parts - [v1.c11.s24 6.24 Spades](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c11.s24) — 2 parts - [v1.c11.s25 6.25 Spindle-whorls](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c11.s25) — 3 parts - [v1.c11.s26 6.26 Technical](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c11.s26) — 2 parts - [v1.c11.s27 6.27 Terracotta Cakes](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c11.s27) — 3 parts - [v1.c11.s28 6.28 Vessels, Special](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c11.s28) — 14 parts - [v1.c11.s29 6.29 Weights and Measures](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c11.s29) — 12 parts ### 6 Domestic and Miscellaneous Objects ### 6.1 Awls ### [v1.c11.s1.1](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c11.s1.1) Plain, notched or grooved awls with pointed working end have been in use as stitchers/borers in the Middle Palaeolithic period \[4.3\] and onwards. The Middle and Upper Palaeolithic \[4.4.\] awls/borers made on quartzite or quartz group of minerals have been found in the BELAN and Luni valleys. Mesolithic \[4.5\] awls have been recovered from LANGHNAJ, ADAMGARH, JABALPUR, BAGOR Chittoor and BIRBHANPUR. They are square, rectangular, or round on plan with a thick projecting point, having a deep notch at the side of the flake. ### [v1.c11.s1.2](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c11.s1.2) In the Neolithic period \[4.6\], as is evidenced at BAGOR, ADAMGARH, BURZAHOM and CHIRAND, bone replaced stone as raw material. The shape also became oblong. ### [v1.c11.s1.3](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c11.s1.3) In the Harappa \[4.9\] and Chalcolithic \[4.14\] levels at LOTHAL, KALIBANGAN, Harappa, Mohenjo-daro and NAVDATOLI copper and bronze awls used for heavier work have been found. The Harappa sites have also yielded awls of bone and ivory. ### [v1.c11.s1.4](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c11.s1.4) Bone awls of the historical period have been recovered from ALLAHAPUR, HASTINĀPURA, UJJAIN, PRAKASH and BRAHMAGIRI. In late levels iron awls predominate. ### [v1.c11.s1.5](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c11.s1.5) For sites see respective entries in vol. II.—R.P. SHARMA ### 6.2 Axes and Adzes (Metallic) ### [v1.c11.s2.1](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c11.s2.1) ‘The axe is to drive into wood, to split it; the adze is to take a thin slip off a larger mass. The axe usually has a short body and means of pulling it back or twisting it loose from the grip of the cloven wood; the adze has a long body and (in ancient times) only a weak attachment to the handle, as it was never struck in deeply. The axe is thick in order to bear shock and carry weight; the adze is thinner, strength not being required. These various differences were not all developed fully at first.’ (Petrie, 1917, p. 5). It therefore follows that the axe is a tool for hewing, cleaving or chopping trees or wood (it could be designed for killing purposes as well \[19.2.5\], whereas the adze is a carpenter’s tool—a sort of an axe with the blade set at right angles to the handle and curved towards it—used for cutting, slicing or planing the surface of wood. ### [v1.c11.s2.2](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c11.s2.2) The earliest specimen of copper axes has been found in the pre-Harappa levels at KALIBANGAN. The celts or blade-axes of the Harappa civilization are invariably flat. The specimens made of hard bronze or hammered copper are of two types: long and narrow or short and broad. Long and narrow axes, with a crescentic working end, double convex in section, straight slightly rounded butt, the thick middle portion having parallel-sided blades, are more frequent than the short and broad ones with splayed edges. ### [v1.c11.s2.3](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c11.s2.3) Shaft-hole axes, representing a superior technology, have two terracotta models at Mohenjo-daro (Mackay, 1938, 1, pp. 458-9) and may thus have not been altogether unknown to the Indus people, particularly as a bronze specimen occurs in the upper levels of Mohenjo-daro (Mackay, \*ibid\*). On the ground that a bronze shaft-hole axe has been found in the (post-Harappa) Jhukar level of Chanhu-daro (Mackay, 1943, p. 188) and a copper one in the Shahi Tump cemetery (Stein, 1931) it has been thought that the type was introduced into the subcontinent as a result of some foreign invasion (Allchin, 1968, p. 146), but such an inference may be unjustified. Trunnion axes such as the ones found at Shalozan in the Kurram valley and in Gilgit Karakoram never became popular in India. ### [v1.c11.s2.4](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c11.s2.4) Flat axes of copper continued to be used in the Chalcolithic period as is evident from NEVASA, JORWE, CHANDOLI and NAVDATOLI. The types are more or less akin to the finds in other cultures. The specimens from NEVASA have a triangular, roughly lenticular section with a flat butt end, resembling the types found at JORWE, NEVASA and NAVDATOLI. ### [v1.c11.s2.5](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c11.s2.5) Copper axes, sometimes with prominent shoulders, have been reported from sites like BAHADARBAD, BISAULI, RAJPUR PARSU, SARTHAULI, BIJNOR, Mainpuri, BITHUR and PONDI, all as parts of Copper Hoards \[4.11\]. They are simple, flat and parallel-sided with unsplayed, straight or semicircular edges, having a pronounced shoulder; some specimens have tapering sides towards the butt and splayed edges. Double-axes, produced out of elliptical copper sheets by the cutting off of large arcs from both the longer sides of the ellipse, also form part of the Copper Hoard equipment as is evidenced from the finds of a few such axes at PARIHATI, Dt Midnapur, where they are found along with such typical Copper Hoard implements as bar celts. Copper double-axes also occur in the Chalcolithic levels of HALLUR. This requires a revision of the theory that such axes from Bhagrapir, Dt Mayurbhanj, were products of the historical period for the inscribing of land grants (Gordon, 1958, p. 145). ### [v1.c11.s2.6](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c11.s2.6) The axes from the PGW levels \[4.15\] of NOH and ATRANJIKHERA are made of iron and are mostly with a shaft-hole. Iron axes were also used by the megalith builders of c. \[4.17.6\] and s. \[4.17.10\] India and the lower Deccan \[4.17.9\], as is evident from finds from KHAPA, TAKALGHAT, GANGAPUR, JUNAPANI, SANUR, ADICHANALLUR, BRAHMAGIRI and MASKI. These are of two main types: one is elongated with a thick rectangular or oblong section, convex butt end and straight, broad working end; the other has a broad body, convex but flat butt end, sharp convex working end with detachable ring-fasteners for hafting. ### [v1.c11.s2.7](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c11.s2.7) The early historical cultures have yielded shaft-hole iron axes with splayed edges. Specimens are reported from PRAKASH, BAHAL, NASIK and RAIRH. An example from NASIK is of the socketed type. They spread to the s. during the 1st millennium A.D. and continued later on (11th century), as is evident from PRAKASH. ### [v1.c11.s2.8](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c11.s2.8) Compared to axes, the evidence of adzes is scanty and not very dependable. It appears that axes described as ‘long and narrow’ might have served the purpose of adzes as well in the Harappa culture \[4.9\]. The Chalcolithic cultures \[4.14\], however, have not yielded any specimen. Specimens made of iron sheets have been discovered from the Megalithic tombs of KHAPA, TAKALGHAT, GANGAPUR and KOTIA. They are double concave with a convex section of the body and a rectangular section and compressed mid-portion. In all probability these were used for cutting leather. Some specimens of iron of the early historical period have been reported from RAIRH, HASTINĀPURA, VAIŚĀLĪ and NEVASA. The NEVASA specimen has a flat side with a tang fixed at an angle to the wooden handle, the like of which \*mutatis mutandis\* continued even in the later ages. ### [v1.c11.s2.9](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c11.s2.9) Allchin, B. & R., 1968, \*Birth of Indian Civilization\*, Harmondsworth. Gordon, D.H., 1958, \*Prehistoric Background of Indian Culture\*, Bombay. Mackay, E.J.H., 1938, \*Further Excavations at Mohenjo-daro\*, Delhi; 1943, \*Chanhu-daro Excavations 1935-6\*, New Haven. Petrie, F., 1917, \*Tools & Weapons\*, London. Stein, A., 1931, \*Archaeological Tour in Gedrosia\*, Mem. ASI, 43. For sites see respective entries in vol. II.—A. BANERJI ### 6.3 Bells ### [v1.c11.s3.1](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c11.s3.1) Bells are known from the Megalithic burials at HUNUR, JUNAPANI, MAHURJHARI and KHAPA. While the bells of iron, six in number, found at KHAPA in the filling of Megalith 1 in association with bones identified as those of an animal of the Equidae family, are hollow and domical in profile with ringed top, the one of copper found in one of the pot burials at HUNUR has a rectangular base and a suspension loop at the top. Copper bells with iron tongue have been found at JUNAPANI and MAHURJHARI. A bronze bell, pyramidal in shape and with a loop at the top, is from the early levels of the ‘Āndhra’ culture at BRAHMAGIRI. ### [v1.c11.s3.2](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c11.s3.2) Bells of iron are also reported from the 3rd-2nd century B.C. levels of RAIRH and of iron, bronze/copper and silver from Taxila. A couple of bells of copper, one having a square body and the other a circular conical one, having its iron tongue suspended to a ring passed through a hole at the top and loop, have been found in the Sātavāhana-Kṣatrapa levels of BHOKARDAN. ### [v1.c11.s3.3](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c11.s3.3) Small copper bells have been found in levels datable between c. 4th and 3rd centuries B.C. of TUMAIN. A small copper bell with an excurved rounded rim and a rectangular hole on the upper part is reported from NAGARA. Of the three bronze bells found at KULPAUK one has an inscription in medieval Kannada script. The copper bells with beaded loops at the top were found at NEVASA in the 1st century B.C. to 2nd-3rd century A.D. levels. ### [v1.c11.s3.4](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c11.s3.4) Marshall, J., 1951, \*Taxila\*, Cambridge, 1, p. 187; 2, pp. 543-4, 598-9. For sites see respective entries in vol. II.—B.M. PANDE ### 6.4 Bullae ### [v1.c11.s4.1](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c11.s4.1) A bulla is a small circular tablet with a decorated design of geometric, floral, animal or human motif. Produced in clay from a mould, it has a loop or perforation, straight or tubular, for threading. Light in weight it is regarded as a pendant if it has a human motif. It seems to be a neck ornament. ### [v1.c11.s4.2](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c11.s4.2) Bullae are known in early historical levels of \*c\*. 300 B.C. to A.D. 200. Taxila has yielded them from Mauriyan times. Medallions are reported from KONDAPUR, SAMBHAR, SISUPALGARH and UJJAIN in levels of \*c\*. 100 B.C. to A.D. The decorations consist of lower petals, spoked wheels, pipal leaves, etc. Animal motifs include the bull, elephant and lion, some in couchant position and others in action. At SAMBHAR a gold lion in repoussé dates to the Kushan period. Bullae with a human face or imitation of coins seem to be a characteristic feature of the early centuries A.D. and have been found at sites in association with objects of Graeco-Roman origin. Two types are distinguishable: one comprises a human bust on one side and rosettes or flower patterns on the other; the second has a more common motif—imitation of Roman coins. The earliest bullae, which are medallions with human masks or figures in relief identified as heads of Apollo or Alexander and are copies of Hellenic prototypes, are from Taxila. From the 2nd century B.C. to the 2nd century A.D. bullae are found at sites like BRAHMAPURI, CHANDRAVALLI, DHARANIKOTA, KONDAPUR, NAGARJUNAKONDA, NEVASA, PAITHAN, SAMBHAR, SISUPALGARH, TER, UJJAIN and UPARKOT. In the Ganga valley they come from KASHIPUR, KAUŚĀMBĪ, MASAON and RAJGHAT. In the s. a few have also been found at KANCHIPURAM, KĀVERĪPAṬṬIṆAM and URAIYUR—imitations of recognizable \*aureii\* or \*denarii\* with inscriptions. Some are copies of coins of emperors Tiberius, Augustus, Hadrian and others. NEVASA has yielded them in gold, lead and terracotta. At UPARKOT and Taxila (Jaulian) they occur in levels of the 4th and 5th centuries A.D. ### [v1.c11.s4.3](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c11.s4.3) Bullae were made from moulds on a large scale and were therefore of popular use. While their exact purpose is unknown their use as objects for ornamental wearing is certain. ### [v1.c11.s4.4](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c11.s4.4) Marshall, J., 1951, \*Taxila\*, Cambridge, 2, pp. 460-1, 631. Wheeler, M., 1955, \*Rome beyond the Imperial Frontiers\*, Harmondsworth, pp. 181-2. For sites see respective entries in vol. II.—C. MARGABANDHU ### 6.5 Chisels ### [v1.c11.s5.1](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c11.s5.1) A large number of chisels of copper or bronze in various shapes have been found at the Harappa sites \[4.9\]. These are made out of a metal bar of which one end is bevelled to one or more sharp edges and the other is left blunt for being struck with a hammer. They have a rectangular, square or round section with broad rectangular tangs and a narrow blade. Some were possibly used with a wooden handle. Unlike the Harappa ones, the chisels found in the Deccan Chalcolithic \[4.14.6-9\] sites are without handles but with a thick body and convex cutting end. The CHANDOLI, NEVASA and MASKI specimens show some alterations and modifications and are of a rectangular type with a flat butt end and splayed cutting edge. The chisels from sites of the lower Ganga Chalcolithic \[4.14.4\], e.g. PANDU RAJAR DHIBI have a rectangular cross-section. ### [v1.c11.s5.2](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c11.s5.2) Chisels of iron reported from the Megalithic levels \[4.17\] of (MASKI, KHAPA, GANGAPUR, TAKALGHAT, BRAHMAGIRI, ADICHANALLUR) have a rectangular bar body, pointed end and incipient shoulders; some of the specimens are bevelled on both faces and were perhaps used as tips for wooden ploughs. ### [v1.c11.s5.3](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c11.s5.3) In the early historical period of NASIK are found iron chisels with a circular top section having bevelled end and flattened to a straight sharp edge, whereas the specimens from KAUNDINYAPURA (Sātavāhana) have a heavy circular stem and pointed end. Chisels of the same type come from the early historical levels of HASTINAPURA, NAGDA, NAVDATOLI, SAMBHAR and NEVASA. ### [v1.c11.s5.4](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c11.s5.4) For sites see respective entries in vol II.—A BANERJI ### 6.6 Fish-hooks ### [v1.c11.s6.1](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c11.s6.1) The Harappa \[4.9\] and the Chalcolithic cultures of c. India and the Deccan \[4.14.5, 6\] have yielded a variety of metallic fish-hooks to the virtual exclusion of harpoons, the latter being a common artefact in the Neolithic culture of Kashmir \[4.6.1\] and in the Copper Hoard culture \[4.11\]. Both barbed and unbarbed types come from Mohenjo-daro and Chanhu-daro. In fact, the ones from Mohenjo-daro are the earliest known examples of the barbed type. On the other hand, Harappa, LOTHAL and BANAWALI have yielded the unbarbed type, which had its continuity at the later Chalcolithic sites like CHANDOLI and NAVDATOLI. One of the five specimens from NAVDATOLI seems to have an eye, now damaged, for threading: all other examples from these two sites have thinned-out ends, with a slightly curved shank. ### [v1.c11.s6.2](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c11.s6.2) Copper was replaced by iron in the Megalithic \[4.17\] and the early historical cultures, but the unbarbed fishhook with tapering shank and slightly curved threading end continued to be the favourite type. The Megalithic sites which have yielded fish-hooks are TAKALGHAT, JUNAPANI, KHAPA, SANUR and GANGAPUR. Of the early historical sites, the finds from ORIUP, TER, SISUPALGARH, NEVASA, SOMNATH and NAGARJUNAKONDA are noteworthy. The use of fish-hook does not seem to have been popular in later historical times despite its early beginning, perhaps because of the widespread use of other fishing contrivances like different kinds of nets and traps. ### [v1.c11.s6.3](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c11.s6.3) Hora, S L., 1954-5, in \*AI\*, 10-11, pp 152-6. Mackay, E.J.H., 1938, \*Further Excavations at Mohenjo-daro\*, Delhi, 1, pp. 471-2; 1943, \*Chanhu-daro Excavations 1935-6\*, New Haven, p. 184. Sarkar, H., 1953, in \*Jour. Asiatic Soc., Science\*, 19, pp. 133-9. Vats, M.S., 1940, \*Excavations at Harappa\*, Delhi, 1, p. 391. For sites see respective entries in vol. II.—A. BANERJI ### 6.7 Games and Amusement ### 6.7.1 Dice ### [v1.c11.s7.t1.1](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c11.s7.t1.1) The earliest dice, made of bone and ivory, are reported from ALAMGIRPUR, DESALPAR, KALIBANGAN, LOTHAL and ROPAR—all Harappa sites \[4.9\]. They are long and square in section, one to six dots incised on the sides. From the early 1st millennium B.C. to the early centuries of the Christian era dice were prepared of stone, shell and terracotta in addition to bone and ivory. The predominant shapes are flat, rectangular or oblong, with the four sides incised with one to four dots running serially, each dot surrounded by one or more circles and bordered by straight lines. An early piece is one from the PGW levels of ALAMGIRPUR. Early historical dice (c. 600-300 B.C.) are reported from c. India and upper Deccan (ERAN, NASIK, UJJAIN), Ganga valley (CHIRAND, SONPUR) and the n.-w. (Taxila), made of bone or ivory. ### [v1.c11.s7.t1.2](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c11.s7.t1.2) Cuboid dice are rare; made of terracotta, they are reported from the Kushan and later levels of KUMRAHAR, RANG MAHAL and SAMBHAR. They bear one to six marks arranged in such a manner that the sum of the points on each pair of the opposite faces is seven, similar to those known from Harappa sites. Some early medieval dice come from CHIRAND, PĀṬALIPUTRA, SHAMALAJI, etc. ### [v1.c11.s7.t1.3](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c11.s7.t1.3) Model game-boards made on potsherds and brick have been identified at LOTHAL (Harappa). In the early historical period of NAGARJUNAKONDA there are game-boards from the Iksvāku levels (\*c.\* A.D. 250-400), incised on stone slabs consisting in one case of eight rows of eight squares in each row and in another in rows of two, three, five consisting of the same number of squares in each respective row. ### [v1.c11.s7.t1.4](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c11.s7.t1.4) Dales, G. F., 1968, in \*Jour. American Oriental Soc.\*, 88, pp. 18-19. Krishnamurthy, K., 1961, in \*Orissa Hist. Res. Jour.\*, 10, pp. 1-4. Marshall, J., 1951 \*Taxila\*, Cambridge, 22, pp. 459-60, 662-3. For sites see respective entries in vol. II.—C. MARGABANDHU ### 6.7.2 Gamesmen ### [v1.c11.s7.t2.1](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c11.s7.t2.1) Simple gaming pieces consist of a flat bottom with a definite head or grooved channel to differentiate the body from the head. The varieties include solid cylinders having flat circular disc base, incised conical top decorated with animal heads and so on. Specimens are known from the Harappa sites \[4.9\] of DESALPUR, KALIBANGAN, LOTHAL, ROJDI, SURKOTADA, etc. At LOTHAL they are made of stone, ivory, bone, conch-shell and terracotta, the shapes being pyramidal, conical, small tetrahedral, cylindrical, and castle-like, with button-shaped tops; the decorated ones include those with heads of animals like the dog, bull, ram, horse and so on. One with a pyramidal head having an ivory handle is a fine decorated model. Others include terracotta ones with ram heads from DESALPUR and simple yet delicate chert and terracotta specimens from KALIBANGAN. At GILUND (Chalcolithic \[4.14.1\]) there are varieties in terracotta, some with animal heads, one of them identified as that of a ram. Simple ones in terracotta are also reported from LAL QILA (OCW \[4.12\] levels) and at ATRANJIKHERA and NOH (PGW \[4.15\] levels). ### [v1.c11.s7.t2.2](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c11.s7.t2.2) During the early historical period gamesmen were prepared in bone, ivory or terracotta. From the 5th-4th century B.C. they became widespread in the Ganga valley and c. and w. India. They are of uniform yet simple shapes consisting of circular discs, flat at the bottom and on the upper side with a raised boss surrounded by concentric circles in the centre, or are solid cylinders, square or hexagonal tablets. Some have perforations on top for threading. Quite a few are painted or decorated with symbols, and those of stone and ivory are polished. Early ones are known from ATRANJIKHERA, BAHAL, NAGDA, PRAKASH, SARAI MOHANA, TUMAIN, UJJAIN, etc., the last site revealing a continuous occurrence from the 5th century B.C. to the 3rd century A.D. without any change of form. From the second century B.C. they are largely known from BESNAGAR, BRAHMAGIRI, BROACH, NAGDA, NAGARI, NASIK, NEVASA, TRIPURĪ, etc. Ivory and terracotta ones are respectively known from PRABHAS PATAN and URAIYUR in the 1st century A.D. levels. Terracotta specimens are widespread in the Ganga valley during the early centuries of the Christian era, being reported from CHANDRAKETUGARH , CHIRAND, KUMRAHAR, MASAON, RAJGHAT⁴, etc. Later terracotta specimens, A.D. 300-600, are found at MAHESHWAR, PAUNAR, RAJGHAT⁴ and SALIHUNDAM. ### [v1.c11.s7.t2.3](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c11.s7.t2.3) Marshall, J., \*Taxila\*, Cambridge, 2, pp. 662-3. For sites see respective entries in vol. II.—C. MARGABANDHU ### 6.7.3 Hopscotches ### [v1.c11.s7.t3.1](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c11.s7.t3.1) Flat potsherds with edges ground to a round shape, or similarly shaped discs of stone or bone, found at many sites, were probably the ancient counterpart of hopscotches—a children’s game of hopping on one foot and pushing the flat object over scotches (lines) marked on the ground. Specimens are known from the Harappa sites \[4.9\] of KALIBANGAN, LOTHAL, ROPAR, SURKOTADA, etc. At ALLAHAPUR, KHALAUA and LAL QILA they come from the early 1st millennium B.C. levels. At CHIRAND such discs are made of ivory and at ERAN and KESARAPALLE of terracotta. At ATRANJIKHERA and NOH they occur in PGW \[4.15\] levels, whereas at AYODHYĀ, HASTINĀPURA, MASAON, PRAHLADPUR and in other Ganga valley sites they continue in the NBPW \[4.16\] levels. Many of the terracotta ones bear various decorations. In the early historical levels their occurrence is widespread in regions of c. and w. India (AMRELI, AWRA, NAGAL, NAGDA, NAVDATOLI, PAUNAR, SARADKEL, UJJAIN), the Ganga valley (ATRANJIKHERA, MASAON, etc.) and the Deccan (NEVASA, BRAHMAGIRI KONDAPUR, MASKI). Later specimens datable to c. A.D. 200 to 500 are known from DEVNIMORI, NAGARJUNAKONDA, RANG MAHAL, SALIHUNDAM and TIMBARVA. The shape remains unchanged from the Harappa to the historical times. ### [v1.c11.s7.t3.2](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c11.s7.t3.2) For sites see respective entries in vol. II.—C. MARGABANDHU ### 6.7.4 Toys ### [v1.c11.s7.t4.1](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c11.s7.t4.1) A toy is an object to play with, often a piece used in a game particularly by children. Toys give a picture of the children's environment and playing with them widens their idea and knowledge of animals, birds and other aspects of their environment. It is sometimes difficult to identify an object as a toy, unlike gaming pieces such as gamesmen \[6.7.2\], dice \[6.7.1\], balls, hopscotches \[6.7.3\] and so on. Those which are not of artistic, cultic or religious value and are simple, miniature forms and models are taken under the category of toys or dolls. ### [v1.c11.s7.t4.2](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c11.s7.t4.2) Objects considered as toys mainly consist of carts with and without wheels \[16.17\], wheeled objects, animals and birds without wheels or cart frames, human figurines, rattles, whistles, knuckle bones, miniature vessels and so on, all small in size. ### [v1.c11.s7.t4.3](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c11.s7.t4.3) Toy carts, frames and wheels found together or separately are known from the Harappa \[4.9\] and Chalcolithic \[4.14\] times to the late historical period. Models of cart frames with transverse holes for tying animals are reported at ALAMGIRPUR, AMBKHERI, DAIMABAD, KALIBANGAN, LOTHAL, SURKOTADA, etc. They are made of copper, bronze or terracotta. ### [v1.c11.s7.t4.4](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c11.s7.t4.4) Wheels \[16.19\] are either simple or decorated; the latter consist of paintings, incisions or applied pellets, dots, etc. Some are plain and flat, while others have hubs on one side. ### [v1.c11.s7.t4.5](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c11.s7.t4.5) Cart models and frames of the early historical period indicate a range of vehicles prepared in a realistic miniature form. The best toy models come from ATRANJIKHERA, BRAHMAPURI, NAGARJUNAKONDA, HASTINĀPURA, NOH, RAIRH, RANG MAHAL, SAMBHAR, SONPUR, UJJAIN, YELLESWARAM, etc. They are made of copper, bronze or terracotta. Some are plain and simple open carts; others are covered wagons and chariots to be drawn by toy horses, bulls, rams, birds, etc. The body of the vehicle has a transverse hole underneath and a pole in front possessing high sloping voluted sides. The wheels have heavy and clearly defined hubs and felli. They are found from the 3rd century B.C to the 3rd-4th century A D ### [v1.c11.s7.t4.6](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c11.s7.t4.6) Wheeled toys consist of animals and birds with two or four wheels with transverse holes for stringing. The Chalcolithic and Harappa ones are from DAIMABAD, KALIBANGAN, LOTHAL, SURKOTADA, etc. At ALAMGIRPUR wheeled toys drawn by bulls and rams are known from the levels of the early 1st millennium B.C. At NAGDA a copper leopard placed on four wheels is datable to the 4th-3rd century B C. Many wheeled toys dragged by horses, humped bulls, rams and birds are reported from Taxila—Bhir mound and Sirkap—datable to the 4th century B C to the 1st century A D. Similar wheeled toys are also known from BHITA, KAUŚĀMBĪ MATHURA, etc., drawn by bulls and rams. ### [v1.c11.s7.t4.7](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c11.s7.t4.7) During the early historical period a number of toy animals—birds and reptiles—have been found with cross perforations at legs, body, ears, nostrils, necks or tails for stringing. The early ones belong to the 5th-4th century B.C. and continue to occur down to the 5th-6th century A.D. The species represented include the lion, tiger, leopard, elephant, rhinoceros, camel, horse, fox, bull, cow, buffalo, ram, goat, monkey, dog, tortoise, \*nāga\*, fish, crocodile, peacock, parrot, dove, cock, owl, pigeon, etc. ### [v1.c11.s7.t4.8](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c11.s7.t4.8) Male and female figurines used as toys or dolls are infrequently reported earlier than the historical period. They bear perforations and are made in different parts joined together. During the early historical period a few toy human figurines are known. At RAIRH headless human figurines are pierced at the neck, shoulders and knees for attachment to be used as movable toys. One is a figure carrying a drum between two arms. Many crude handmade figurines with pinched nose, round eyes and outstretched arms, occur at BHOKARDAN, BRAHMMAPURI, KAUŚĀMBĪ: KONDAPUR, MASKI, NEVASA, MATHURA, PAITHAN, RANG MAHAL, SAMBHAR, TER, etc. They belong to the time span of the 3rd century B.C. and 3rd century A.D. ### [v1.c11.s7.t4.9](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c11.s7.t4.9) Rattles are objects with sound-making device made in shapes imitating animals and birds, grotesque figures, pots, etc. Small pebbles and clay pellets are put inside them for jingling. They are known from KALIBANGAN, LOTHAL, SURKOTADA, etc., and are mostly birds in terracotta. During the early historical period the commonest ones are in the shape of bird. They are usually in terracotta but a few are of iron and copper. At NEVASA one is of the shape of an elephant and another is bulbous. A specimen from BRAHMAGIRI possesses a grotesque face. Bird-shaped rattles are also reported from AMRELI, CHANDRAKETUGARH and RANG MAHAL; SAMBHAR has yielded one of iron in addition to bird rattles in terracotta from Kushan times. Rattles also come from PAUNAR in the period of the 5th-6th century. At Taxila a number of terracotta rattles occur in levels of the 3rd century B.C. to the 4th century A.D. In addition to birds (cocks and parrots), animals (rams and tortoise) and grotesque faces, the new types include fruit (pomegranates) and anthropoid figures. ### [v1.c11.s7.t4.10](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c11.s7.t4.10) Whistles are known from Chalcolithic times. NEVASA and Taxila have yielded them from the early historical levels. A unique specimen from the former site is cut from shell columela. At Taxila all are made in clay of the shape of sling bullets, barrel beads or miniature vases. ### [v1.c11.s7.t4.11](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c11.s7.t4.11) A few knuckle bones are reported from KALIBANGAN. RANG MAHAL and TAXILA have yielded them in the historical levels. They are used in a game similar to dice but possess four flat sides, the other two being round. The four flat sides are worked with markings numbering one opposite six and three opposite four. The specimens from RANG MAHAL belong to a small bovid and are smoothened at the top and bottom. They belong to the late Kushan times. ### [v1.c11.s7.t4.12](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c11.s7.t4.12) Miniature stools, legs or chests, boards, etc., belong to the early centuries A.D. and are made in ivory and terracotta. NEVASA has yielded a toy stool of clay. Many toy models of furniture made of ivory and bone are known from Taxila from the 3rd century B.C. to the 3rd century A.D. levels. They represent handles, terminals, miniature trinkets, tables and bedsteads. ### [v1.c11.s7.t4.13](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c11.s7.t4.13) Pots and vessels so tiny that they can be only toys occur in abundance from Chalcolithic times to the historical period. The range of shapes consists of vases, bowls, spouted pots with handle, flat-based jars, lids, globular vessels, small containers, cups and beakers. ### [v1.c11.s7.t4.14](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c11.s7.t4.14) Dongerkery, S., 1954, \*Journey Through Toyland\*. For sites see respective entries in vol. II.—C. MARGABANDHU ### 6.8 Hammers ### [v1.c11.s8.1](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c11.s8.1) The metal hammer is a tool used for beating metal to shape and size, breaking rock and driving nails. The shape and size of hammers differ according to their purpose. They are square, socketed, flat-headed or round-faced, or of the shape of single and double picks or small adzes. Flat-headed square hammers having sockets were generally used by blacksmiths, whereas larger ones with round face and single or double picks were intended for sizing stones for masonry work, and the smaller adze hammers were meant for carpentry. Specimens of these have been found at Taxila, datable to the first century A.D., but it is rather surprising that they have not been reported from any other site. \[A loaf-shaped wooden mallet with a (broken) wooden handle inserted into it is recorded from the pre-Arretine levels of ARIKAMEDU, (\*AI\*, 2, 1946, p. 104.)\] ### [v1.c11.s8.2](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c11.s8.2) Marshall, J., 1951, \*Taxila\*, Cambridge, 2, p. 555.—A. BANERJI ### 6.9 Hoes ### [v1.c11.s9.1](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c11.s9.1) The earliest specimens are from sites like NAGDA, NAVDATOLI, CHIRAND and ATRANJIKHERA in levels associated with the NBPW \[4.16\]. The NAVDATOLI finds have been described as ‘split or bent in rings’. Iron hoes with ring-fasteners and sockets were used by the Megalithic people (cf. a specimen from BRAHMAGIRI). \[See MAHURJHARI.\] Hoes of the early centuries of the Christian era found at SISUPALGARH have a tang with a circular section, unlike the socketed ones with ring-fasteners from NAVDATOLI and BRAHMAGIRI. Specimens from KAUṆḌINYAPURA (post-Sātavāhana) and HASTINĀPURA (late historical) are of the earlier type, with the difference that they are socketed with a round splayed base for the easy attachment of a handle. ### [v1.c11.s9.2](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c11.s9.2) For sites see respective entries in vol. II.—A. BANERJI . ### 6.10 Knives ### [v1.c11.s10.1](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c11.s10.1) The earliest known specimens of copper or bronze knives, from the Harappa culture \[4.9\], are of a simple type with a thin tanged blade and pointed top, the cutting edge being on the curved side and the back slightly thickened. In a number of specimens, e.g. from Chanhudaro, there are rivet holes for the fixing of wooden handles. Most of these specimens are made of sheet metal and are not cast. Basically the same type continued in the Chalcolithic cultures of c. India and the Deccan \[4.14.5, 6\]. During the Megalithic period \[4.17\], when copper was replaced by iron, knives with blades with a short tang and circular section came into use as is revealed from the finds at TAKALGHAT, KHAPA, SANUR and BRAHMAGIRI. ### [v1.c11.s10.2](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c11.s10.2) In the early historical period two types were fairly common, viz. concave-backed and with straight back and tapering edge. The former type has been found at sites like NASIK, KAUŚĀMBĪ, BESNAGAR, MAHESHWAR, NEVASA, JORWE, NAGARA and SISUPALGARH. The earliest among these are from NASIK, assignable to the period between 300 B.C. and A.D. 400. Specimens have been found at KAUŚĀMBĪ, from level assigned to A.D. 600. A noteworthy feature of the NAGARA specimen is that it has a handle made of iron, not found elsewhere. Specimens of the latter type have been reported from the early historical levels of VAIŚĀLĪ, SAMBHAR, BANGARH and Kondivte. It can thus be assumed that knives with curved or pointed and rectangular tang were the common type as evidenced by the finds from NASIK, JORWE and NEVASA. There are some specimens from TER and AHAR², datable between the 1st century B.C. and the 3rd century A.D. The specimens from TER are tanged and curved knives with concavoconvex sides and plano-convex sides, while those from AHAR² are with tapering end, one edge sharp and the other blunt. Iron knives were extensively used in the Indo-Roman period (1st century B.C. to 2nd-3rd centuries A.D.) NEVASA, where there is a variety with tang and pointed end. ### [v1.c11.s10.3](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c11.s10.3) Mackay, E.J.H., 1938, \*Further Excavations at Mohenjo-daro\*, Delhi, 1, pp. 462-6; 1943, \*Chanhu-daro Excavations (1935-6)\*, New Haven, pp. 180-2. Vats. M.S., 1940, \*Excavations at Harappa\*, Delhi, 1, p. 386. For sites see respective entries in vol. II.—A. BANERJI ### 6.11 Lamps ### [v1.c11.s11.1](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c11.s11.1) Lamps are available in terracotta, stone and metal (copper and iron), specimens in the first material being the earliest. Typologically they show a variety: (1) miniature shallow bowl with pinched/beaked edge or without it; (2) variant of (1) with a central handle with/without water-container; (3) with a lip having a single or multiple channel; (4) spouted, plain and decorated; (5) shaped like an animal (tortoise); (6) with lugs and nozzle; (7) held in hand by a standing human figure; and (8) rectangular with an ornamented spout. In (4) the spouts are decorated with human/animal heads. ### [v1.c11.s11.2](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c11.s11.2) Types (4) to (7) exhibit Hellenistic/Roman influence. Roman lamps are reported from ARIKAMEDU and TER. They consist of a globular container with a top hole for pouring oil, a projecting nozzle for the wick and a pierced lug on the opposite side of the nozzle for hold. They are plain or decorated. While most of the types have gone out of use, type (1) still continues. The survival of type (2) is reflected in the stemmed bronze lamps of Kerala. A combination of types (2) and (3) is seen in the stemmed bronze lamps of s. India, while the \*dīpa-lakṣmī\* in metal is a natural development of type (7). ### [v1.c11.s11.3](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c11.s11.3) Though lamps are seemingly ageless there is no evidence of their use in the Stone Ages, their first appearance being at the Chalcolithic \[4.14\] sites. However varieties appear in the early historical levels (6th century B.C. to 1st century A.D.) and proliferate later on. In the Megalithic \[4.17\] levels are found multichannel-lipped lamps and saucer-shaped iron ones with a pinched lip and vertical handle. ### [v1.c11.s11.4](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c11.s11.4) For sites see respective entries in vol. II.—K.S. RAMACHANDRAN ### 6.12 Locks and Keys ### [v1.c11.s12.1](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c11.s12.1) Locks and keys are referred to in the \*Cullavagga\* as \*yantaka-sūcika\* but have been rarely found in excavations. Keys have been found at Sirkap and later sites of Taxila. Specimens of locks and keys come from SANCHI and are datable to the 4th-5th century and later on from NĀLANDĀ. The specimens have a spring and push type device with a very simple mechanism: four flexible springs at the end of the bolts are made to pass through a small hole inside the lock case which has a hole in the rear plate for insertion of the bolt with a hole in the opposite end to permit the key to be inserted for operation of the lock. The SIPPUR ones (\*c.\* 700) have a spring and push type in two different shapes, viz. circular and rectangular in cross-section, representing the type often found in the Roman world. ### [v1.c11.s12.2](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c11.s12.2) Hamid, M., \*et al.\*, 1922, \*Catalogue of Antiquities in the Sanchi Museum\*, Calcutta, p. 47. Marshall, J., 1951, \*Taxila\*, Cambridge, 2, p. 599. For sites see respective entries in vol. II.—A. BANERJI ### 6.13 Masks ### [v1.c11.s13.1](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c11.s13.1) Masks, used as coverings for the face either as a protective screen or disguise, have not so far been found at any site; nor are there any known examples of spectacle masks, war masks or portrait masks. All the known specimens are miniature masks of terracotta which vary in dimensions but are hardly ever life-size, except for a lone example from CHIRAND which again could not have been used as a covering for the face. ### [v1.c11.s13.2](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c11.s13.2) Representations of masked human figures are found in paintings on rock-shelters \[13\] which have been dated variously between the Mesolithic \[4.5\] and the historical period; some of these could be considered archetypes of later masks. These figures painted on rock-shelters in Madhya Pradesh are shown wearing bison-horned masks, wolf-head masks, mouse-head masks, etc. (Wakankar and Brooks, 1976, pp. 32, 44, 79). One of the human figures from BHIMBETKA, wearing a double-horned mask and another from MODI (\*ibid.\*, p. 32) are reminiscent respectively of the Harappa \[4.9\] double-horned figure engraved on a terracotta cake found at KALIBANGAN (\*IAR 1963-4\*, pp. 31, 38, pl. XXII B) and the painted motif on a Cemetery H potsherd from Harappa (Vats, 1940, pl. LXIX, 18). Of interest are the masked human figures with double horns represented on seals from Mohenjo-daro and an archer with a double-horned masked face on a copper tablet from the same site. ### [v1.c11.s13.3](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c11.s13.3) The terracotta masks from Mohenjo-daro are mould-made, hollow and miniature in size. They are of four types: short-horned grotesquely human-faced; horned panther-faced; bull-faced; and bull-horned, bearded human-faced. While no such examples of masks have been found at Harappa, there are examples of animal figurines having masked face with 'Negrito' features. The human-faced masks seem to have been painted or slipped as is evident from traces of either red or white paint or chocolate-coloured slip and have been considered as representing deities. The eyes of the panther-faced masks which are perforated were 'perhaps once inlaid'. The hollow, horned mask from Mohenjo-daro with a short beard projecting slightly outwards and having bull rather than bison horns is the only example of this type and like the other masks has been considered as representing some deity. To the same genre perhaps belong the terracotta animal figurines from Mohenjo-daro and Harappa with faces reminiscent of the miniature masks. ### [v1.c11.s13.4](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c11.s13.4) The next known examples of masks are of the early historical period and among them the earliest is the terracotta mask found in the NBPW \[4.16\] levels of CHIRAND (\*IAR 1970-71\*, p. 7, pl IX A). This mask is perhaps the only example of a life-size mask found so far and shows a 'fierce-looking human face with protruding teeth, bulging nose, rounded eyes and applied moustache'. That it was 'worn like a helmet' is perhaps not correct for its eyes are blocked. ### [v1.c11.s13.5](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c11.s13.5) The terracotta 'lion-head with realistic features, affixed to a pot' found at PAUNAR, Pd II B, is reminiscent of three 'small lion-masks in relief used for decorating the sides of vessels' found in the Parthian levels of Sirkap and Dharmarājikā site at Taxila which Marshall considered as imitations of Hellenistic prototypes. Contemporary with the Taxila specimens are two miniature masks found in the late levels of Pd V of NEVASA. These masks depict human faces with bold facial features, an \*uṣṇīṣa\*-like knob on the forehead, big and protruding eyes, short nose and thick lips and were perhaps coated with red paint as is evident from traces of red paint on lips, ears and the forehead knob. These were also attached apparently to some pot and according to the excavators show foreign influence. ### [v1.c11.s13.6](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c11.s13.6) A fragment of a mask in terracotta was found at MATHURA (personal communication from M.C. Joshi) in an unstratified deposit which, according to the excavator, can be associated with the Kushan period. ### [v1.c11.s13.7](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c11.s13.7) Dales, G.F., 1965, in \*Archaeology\*, 18, 2 (for Mohenjo-daro masks). Mackay, E.J.H., 1938, \*Further Excavations at Mohenjo-daro\*, Delhi. Marshall, J., 1931, \*Mohenjo-daro & the Indus Civilization\*, London. Marshall, J., 1951, \*Taxila\*, Cambridge. Vats, M.S., 1940, \*Excavations at Harappa\*, Delhi. Wakankar, V.S., & Brooks, R.R.R., 1976, \*Stone Age Painting in India\*, Bombay. For sites see respective entries in vol. II.—B.M. PANDE ### 6.14 Nails ### [v1.c11.s14.1](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c11.s14.1) The earliest nails of copper have been found in the Chalcolithic \[4.14\] levels of NAVDATOLI. They are round or rhomboid with a convex, outspread or square head. Iron nails have been found at TAKALGHAT, KHAPA, SANUR and MASKI—all Megalithic \[4.17\]. They also occur in the early historical levels of PAUNAR, HASTINĀPURA, NEVASA, TER, BRAHMAPURI, NASIK, KARAD, PRAKASH, BAHAL, TRIPURI, SOMNATH and KAUSĀMBĪ. They are long and tapering with heads variously shaped—circular, hooked, knobbed, oblong, bulbous and beaked. In the same levels at HASTINĀPURA, NAGARA, NEVASA, SISUPALGARH and GANGAPUR copper nails have also been found. They are sharply pointed and have a round or flat body with a rectangular or square section and flat, circular or knobbed head. The ones from HASTINĀPURA are noteworthy for their head forms. Iron nails of the shapes mentioned above continued in use till late historical times, as evidenced at PAUNAR (600-800) and HASTINĀPURA (10th-11th century). ### [v1.c11.s14.2](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c11.s14.2) For sites see respective entries in vol. II.—A. BANERJI ### 6.15 Needles ### [v1.c11.s15.1](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c11.s15.1) Needles—round and oblong pins of various sizes, with one end pointed and the other thick and perforated—are mainly used for stitching. The first evidence of needles in India is reported from the Neolithic \[4.6\] levels at BURZAHOM, CHIRAND, and BAGOR. ### [v1.c11.s15.2](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c11.s15.2) Needles have also been found at Harappa. At LOTHAL a mould for manufacturing needles has been noticed. LOTHAL has also a needle with the hole at the working end. From the post-Harappa times down to the end of the Mauryan period needles conforming to the above definition are conspicuous by their absence. Sculptural remains at Sanchi, Sarnath and Mathura however reveal the evidence of stitched garments worn by foreign rulers and soldiers, thereby suggesting the continued use of needles. ### [v1.c11.s15.3](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c11.s15.3) For sites see respective entries in vol. II.—R.P. SHARMA ### 6.16 Net-sinkers ### [v1.c11.s16.1](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c11.s16.1) Net-sinkers are heavy, perforated metal, stone or terracotta objects used as weight at one end of the fishing net to keep that end under water, the other end being kept floating with the help of light-weight floaters. There are two main varieties of net-sinkers: (1) annular bead-shaped, and (2) perforated disc-shaped. Both varieties have been found at Mohenjo-daro, Chanhudaro, KALIBANGAN and LOTHAL—all Harappa \[4.9\] sites. From the Neolithic \[4.6.1\] site of BURZAHOM oblong terracotta net-sinkers, with one end pointed and the other grooved, have been recovered. Fragmentary terracotta net-sinkers occur in the OCW \[4.12\] levels at LAL QILA. At ARIKAMEDU the second variety has been found in plenty. Other sites are KĀVERĪPAṬṬINAM and many sites in n. India, such as KAUSĀMBĪ, RAJGHAT⁴ and PĀṬALIPUTRA. ### [v1.c11.s16.2](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c11.s16.2) Outside the subcontinent the first type, fashioned out of pebbles, is reported from Al 'Ubaid, and the second along with the remains of a fishing net, from Khafaja, both in Iraq. ### [v1.c11.s16.3](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c11.s16.3) Mackay, E.J.H.. 1983, \*Further Excavations at Mohenjo-daro\*, Delhi, 1, pp. 435, 641; 1943, \*Chanhu-daro Excavations 1935-36\*, New Haven, pp 168, 221. For sites see respective entries in vol. II.—R.P. SHARMA ### 6.17 Ovens ### [v1.c11.s17.1](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c11.s17.1) The earliest specimens of ovens come from SARAI NAHAR RAI (Mesolithic \[4.5\], ¹⁴C date 8395 ± 110 ʙᴄ ). They are oblong or circular on plan, with burnt clay lump and animal bones, charred and uncharred. In the dwelling pits of BURZAHOM (Neolithic \[4.6.1\]) clay- or stone-lined hearths are found in the centre located on raised platforms and with ashes, charcoal and burnt clay. In one case three hearths appear in a row. In the late Neolithic \[4.6.4\] phase of CHIRAND a series of open longitudinal ovens is laid on circular floors. Similar hearths continue in the Chalcolithic \[4.14.3\] levels of the same place. Circular hearths are also reported in Neolithic \[4.6.9\] levels at HALLUR. At KALIBANGAN (Harappa \[4.9\]) within each house are found ovens both underground and overground, resembling modern tandurs in that region; the former have mud-plastered walls, and the latter, also with mud walls perhaps plastered, have bridged side-opening for feeding fuel Similar ovens are also found at SANGHOL in the late Harappa \[4.10\] times. At GILUND ovens have whitewashed exteriors. Large hearths with a unit of two or four cooking positions are common at AHAR⁴; they are laid on a square platform decorated with depressed chevrons. ### [v1.c11.s17.2](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c11.s17.2) The five-armed hearths are plain. They suggest the practice of community cooking. ### [v1.c11.s17.3](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c11.s17.3) Ovens are reported from Chalcolithic houses at CHANDOLI, ERAN, INAMGAON, NAVDATOLI, NEVASA, SONGAON, etc. They are lime-plastered and clay-lined with knobs inside and are either two- or four-armed, rectangular, square or semicircular on plan, ranging in diameter from 30 to 80 cm, with remains of ashes, charcoal, burnt wood, clods of clay, lime, etc. Remains of a series of ovens occur in late Harappa times at MALWAN. Ovens belonging to PGW \[4.15\] levels are known from sites in the Ganga-Yamuna valley, e.g. ALLAHAPUR, AMBKHERI, ATRANJIKHERA, HASTINĀPURA and KASERI. They are either closed or open hearths laid on mud floors, oval or rectangular in shape and are at times placed in rows. At ORIUP and PANDU RAJAR DHIBI ovens on kitchen floors are known from pre-Iron Age habitations. ### [v1.c11.s17.4](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c11.s17.4) The early NBPW \[4.16\] levels of AHICCHATRĀ, NOH, PURANA QILA, SAMBHAR and VAIŚĀLĪ have yielded two- and four-armed multiple ovens in mud-floored kitchens. Domestic kitchens of Sātavāhana times reveal interesting features. At BHOKARDAN have been found twin hearths resting on lime floors measuring 40 × 10 × 6 cm and three community hearths in the shape of a channel on rammed tile floors. At BRAHMAPURI large kitchens and two ovens with fixed storage jars and charred \*ragi\* lying near them have been excavated. ### [v1.c11.s17.5](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c11.s17.5) Ovens on kitchen floors, datable to Śuṅga-Kushan times, are reported from AWRA, CAMPA, KUMRAHAR, MASAON, NOH, SAMBHAR, TRIPURĪ and UJJAIN. They are of clay or are brick-lined, at times plastered, circular or oval in shape, two or three in a row, with built-in storage vessels close by. In the Megalithic \[4.17\] habitations at KESARAPALLE and KUNNATTUR there are oval ovens with finger-tip decorations. ANTICHAK, GILUND, KAUSAMBI, KAYATHA, NAGARA, PALLAVAMEDU, PURANA QILA and SARAI MOHANA have various ovens, more or less of modern types, in the late historical period. They are built on mud floors and are circular or oval on plan. ### [v1.c11.s17.6](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c11.s17.6) Sankalia. H D , \*et al\* , 1975. in \*Expedition\*. 17. 2. p 3 (for Inamgaon) Sharma, R S , 1975-6, in \*Puratattva\*, 8, pp. 67-8 For sites see respective entries in vol. II.—C. MARGABANDHU ### 6.18 Ploughshares ### [v1.c11.s18.1](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c11.s18.1) A pick-like object with a large pointed blade fixed to a plough, the ploughshare, originally perhaps of wood, is meant to cut the undersurface of the soil from the ground for purposes of cultivation. The earliest reported example found at TIMBARVA is of iron, associated with the NBPW \[4.16\]. The other early historical sites that have yielded iron ploughshares are NEVASA, SARADKEL, KAUSĀMBĪ and RAIRH. The SARADKEL specimen, of \*c.\* 1st century A D., is longitudinal in shape. The examples from KAUSĀMBĪ, A.D. 300, have an expanded edge to be attached to the plough, while the other edge is narrow and thick for tilling the ground. Ploughshares of rectangular cross-section with one end broken and the other tapering to a point have been reported from SOMNATH, datable between the 1st and 6th centuries A D. \[See 16. 1.\] ### [v1.c11.s18.2](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c11.s18.2) For sites see respective entries in vol. II.—A. BANERJI ### 6.19 Querns, Mullers, Pestles, Mortars ### [v1.c11.s19.1](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c11.s19.1) These stone objects form a distinct class of artefacts mainly associated with the treatment and preparation of plant foods, their occurrence presupposing an assured supply of these food items. It is, therefore, not surprising that it is only from the food-producing or Neolithic-Chalcolithic \[4.6, 4.14\] stage of life that they begin to appear in a regular way in the archaeological record and, more important, still continue to be used among communities unaffected by modern technology. Some of these objects already appear in a rudimentary form in the Mesolithic \[4.5\] phase, then become a regular feature of the pre-Harappa \[4.2\], Harappa \[4.3\] and post-Harappa cultures and continue down into the historical period. Basalt, sandstone, quartzite, granite, dolerite and schist are the most common rocks employed in the preparation of these artefacts. The use of coarse-grained rocks is intentional inasmuch as their abrasive surfaces serve to quicken the operations of grinding, pounding and crushing. Flaking and pecking are the two techniques adopted for shaping the blocks of raw material. ### 6.19.1 Querns ### [v1.c11.s19.t1.1](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c11.s19.t1.1) These are made of large blocks of stone and are meant for grinding grain. Some of them could also have been used for preparing curry-paste and even colours. Three subtypes are available; saddle querns, legged querns, and rotary querns. ### [v1.c11.s19.t1.2](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c11.s19.t1.2) Incomplete specimens of saddle querns with slightly concave surfaces are known from the Mesolithic sites of BAGOR and LANGHNAJ; Sankalia believes that the LANGHNAJ specimens were meant for preparing colours and not for grinding grain. Later they occur in the pre-Harappa and Harappa cultures, Chalcolithic cultures of c. India \[4.14.5\] and the Deccan \[4.14.6\] and Neolithic cultures of s. \[4.6.8-10\] and e. \[4.6.6\] India. They survive into the historical period and are still used in rural areas. Their base is generally irregular; hence it has been suggested that at sites like Harappa they were partly sunk into the ground and then used. In some cases the sides as well as the upper surface appear to have been shaped by flaking and pecking. They are usually elongated oval in overall shape, but round, square and rectangular examples also occur at sites like NAVDATOLI. The upper (i.e. working) surface is either flat or concave; in the latter case the depression has a maximum depth of about 15 cm. Some of the large examples like the ones found on the Neolithic hill-settlements of s. India are 50 to 60 cm long and 35 cm broad. ### [v1.c11.s19.t1.3](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c11.s19.t1.3) In legged querns the base is provided with four short legs or feet. The sides as well as the upper surface show better preparation. In shape they are elongated with straight sides and straight or rounded ends. Although some examples have been reported from Harappa, the type appears to be most commonly associated with the early historical and later periods. Intact specimens are known from KOLHAPUR, NASIK, NEVASA, NAVDATOLI, Taxila and several other sites. The working surface is either flat or slightly concave. At sites like NASIK one of the ends has a prominent projection, from over which the ground material including soft substances like curry-paste was probably received in a dish kept below. More importantly, at sites like Taxila and NASIK the ends as well as the sides are ornamented with incised decoration including Buddhist symbols like \*svastika\* and \*tri-ratna\*. ### [v1.c11.s19.t1.4](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c11.s19.t1.4) Rotary querns involving the principle of rotary motion mark the most evolved form of hand-operated querns. They consist of two parts: a lower and an upper stone called the hopper. Two of these querns were found at Taxila, one belonging to the late Śaka-Parthian period (100 B.C. to A.D. 50) and the other to the 5th century A.D. A dozen complete specimens and also several broken pieces were found at NEVASA in the levels of early historical period (2nd or 1st century B.C.). In his comprehensive study of the specimens from NEVASA and other sites like Tadkod, LOTHAL, BILAWALI, NAGARJUNAKONDA, Taxila and SIRPUR, the examples from the latter site dated to the 6th-7th century A D. Sankalia (Sankalia \*et al\*., 1960, pp. 477-89) divided them into five classes, depending upon the variation in the position of the peg-handle provided for rotation on the hopper stone. He concluded that rotary querns (his classes 1 to 3) with a transverse hole for wooden fittings including the peg-handle) preceded in time those with a vertical handle as indicated by a socket on the rim (his classes 4 and 5). The latter type is widely used even today. He further postulated that the former category, including the solitary specimen found on surface at LOTHAL and ascribed to the late Harappa phase by the excavator, was introduced into India by the Indo-Greek or even the Phoenicians. \[Childe, 1943, would ascribe the introduction of rotary querns in the subcontinent to the early centuries of the Christian era\]. Arguing in favour of a late Harappa date of the Lothal example and taking note of the use till today of heavy wooden rotary querns by certain tribal groups of Madhya Pradesh and Orissa and also the fact that at Taxila the quern with vertical handle occurs in levels earlier than the one with transverse handles, Dikshit, 1968, pp. 25-46, contradicted Sankalia's view and argued for an indigenous origin of this device. But Sankalia, (1974, pp. 375-6,) remains unconvinced and draws attention to the conspicuous absence of rotary querns during the time-period covered by the Harappa and post-Harappa cultures. ### [v1.c11.s19.t1.5](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c11.s19.t1.5) 6. \*19.2 Mullers\*. These are elongated objects measuring up to 30 cm in length, and are particularly suitable for grinding operations on querns with a flat working surface. In some cases river pebbles and nodules are just used without any preparation, but there are many examples which appear to have been shaped by means of flaking and chipping. In some specimens the ends are bulbous. The body generally smoothened by use is cylindrical or shows facets; in the latter case, the cross-section may be squarish, biconvex, plano-convex or rectangular, depending upon the degree of wear. At Mohenjo-daro some specimens show use-marks on the ends, so they appear to have been used as pestles and not as mullers. The evidence from sites like NASIK and NEVASA shows that these objects were commonly used in the early historical, Indo-Roman and Muslim-Maratha periods. An intriguing feature about their temporal distribution is that, excluding some specimens found at AHAR and NAVDATOLI, they are generally absent at the Neolithic and Chalcolithic sites. It is, therefore, not improbable that in lieu of these artefacts another class of implements called rubber-stones or grinding stones was devised for this purpose. The latter, also made of coarse-grained rocks, are of various shapes—oblong, rectangular, oval or circular—and measure up to 20 cm in length. They are smoothened on one surface only and are well-suited for use on saddle querns. It may be pertinent to recall here that these objects occur in good numbers at the Neolithic and Chalcolithic sites. _First 94 of 178 passages. 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