An Encyclopaedia of Indian Archaeology v1.c14.s8.t4: 9.8.4 Holocene
An Encyclopaedia of Indian Archaeology v1.c14.s8.t4
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9.8.4 Holocene
v1.c14.s8.t4.1
While a distinctive series of climatic changes and its effects characterize the Pleistocene Age [9.7.2] its termination is marked by the withdrawal of the last glaciation. This may be a perfect line drawing the closure of a period but it can hardly mark the beginning of the succeeding one in so short a time. For one thing the withdrawal of the last ice sheets varied in time and space. The difference in the dates in absolute figures between two extremes is more than double the total duration of the Holocene reckoned from the latest one.
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Holocene, semantically speaking, means ‘modern’ in the sense that it is contemporary. Geological ages and their subdivisions are based on the emergence of new forms of life. Thus judged the Holocene does not show sufficient indication to be classified as a new period. Even otherwise it is not certain that the Ice Age is over. The present, geologically speaking, may be only an Interglacial phase [cf. 9.7.3]. Even if the Pleistocene Age is over the present times may be only a part of the line separating the two periods—a peirod of overlap.
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In India the glaciations were confined to the higher reaches of the Himalayas. Not all of them descended even down to the Kashmir valley. To draw a Pleistocene—Holocene boundary in India is therefore a hazardous job, particularly when there is very little scope for adjusting the marginal errors.
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In the face of the difficulties it can only be relevant to describe the conditions prevailing as far back as possible within the Holocene. All rock formations excepting the ones presently being formed, mainly in the s. most portion of the coast, are earlier in date. Almost all soil profiles are mature and date back to the Pleistocene. This leaves us very little in the form of proper evidence. Hence one has to depend upon logical deductions mainly basing the observations on probable meteorolgical conditions. Here again the situation gets complicated for monsoonal conditions already got stabilized during the Pleistocene itself.
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The withdrawal of the glaciation released a huge quantity of water in the atmosphere, resulting in heavy precipitation. Snow-fed rivers with already well-established channels began to suffer rapid changes. On the slopes of the Himalayas water flowed in sheets, forming numerous new streams. These streams, transporting big boulders, developed deep channels with steep gradients and became in course of time the affluents of the established rivers, often changing the character of the latter. Coming down to the plains these new streams met with a situation where only a low gradient was possible. They therefore began to flood the area and gradually broaden the channel. Thus were produced unsteady streams with broad but shallow channels which impede the development of a steady course. Even the established rivers began to broaden their courses. This resulted in a situation where at the foothills big expanses of water accumulated. Swamps at the foothills are the remnants.
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In effect the fine suspended load of the stream got deposited over long distances bringing fertility to the soil and developing grasslands. On the slopes of lower reaches of the hills grew dense forests. It is possible that the *tarai* jungle dates from this period. Heavy precipitation resulted almost similarly on the hills and plains of the rest of India. All the hills were heavily wooded. The rivers became too broad for their depth in the plains. The whole of India therefore turned into forests, grasslands and swamps. Deserts [9.2] began to develop later.
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The sea level [9.11] changed. As more water discharged into the sea its level rose. Near Sarvepalli and neighbouring villages of coastal Andhra Pradesh excavations have revealed redeposited boulders at a height below the present sea level. This aspect also inhibited the process of the deepening of the existing channels. The phenomenon of overprecipitation ranging practically throughout the seasons gradually diminished to give a riding supremacy to the monsoons. From this time the dry areas began to get gradually transformed into arid zones depending on various factors, two of them being the salinity of the underground water and the absence of high-enough mountain ranges in proper alignment or fully saturated atmosphere to halt and make precipitation possible.
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The rise in the sea level broke down, at least partly, the sand bars or spits that had turned the coastal lagoons into lakes during the Pleistocene [9.8.2]. This resulted in some of these lakes having both sweet and salt waters and especially in Chilka in Orissa fish of both varieties flourish. Once the rise of the sea level ended, these lakes, which had for a short period and often only partly turned into lagoons, became lakes once more. The soil and sand bars were now only sand bars mainly in the e. coast.
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Down the s. part of the coast the condition was slightly different. The series of offshore islands close to the coastal line and the presence of coral resulted into the formation of a succession of lagoons. These again successively turned into lakes and then dried up to show fossil dunes.
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While individually the fauna [15.1.5] showed little change collectively its proportion changed. Both steppe and forest animals increased. The buffalo made this land its home. Cattle of the *indicus* variety appeared and became widespread. It is curious that both the sheep and goat [1] have been associated with later cultures, Harappa [4.9], Neolithic [4.6] and Chalcolithic [4.14]. They naturally appear to be an immigrant species at least so far as the mainland of India is concerned. The rarity of the horse is surprising. For on one hand it existed in India during the end of the Pleistocene and on the other the grasslands afforded a good pasture. It is possible that being an animal of comparatively dry habitat the extreme moist condition did not go well with this species. The elephant of the Indian variety originated here only. From a general and widely distributed habitat it later got isolated in the forests near the grasslands. Among other grassland animals the deer and antelope became widely prevalent. Predators like the lion, panther, hyena and jackal also remained associated with the grasslands or forests near by. The gradual diminishing of the lion population seems more probably due to the grasslands being fully turned into agricultural lands, forcing both the lion and its food animals to the forest. While it is possible to some extent for the deer and antelope to adjust themselves to the forests it is not possible for the lion to do so for it is not that good to ambush for hunting. Besides, physically a lion gets very little camouflage in a forest. The panther group is more natural to the forest both in the nature of its hunting and its capacity to camouflage.
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Both in fauna and flora there was thus a change signifying from a milder condition to a warmer condition and very wet condition to simple monsoonal condition. A few species of rhododendron are today found in the Himalayas as well as on the higher reaches of isolated peninsular high hills. Apparently these are remnants of the Pleistocene when the whole peninsula was full of them. Peats are found in the higher hill stretches in Nepal, in the Nilgiris, etc. The earlier ones of these have their origin during the transitional phase as also the earlier fossil coastal lakes. Animals are of recent types and more warm-loving ones. The gradual drying up of swamps may account for the gradual extinction of the rhinoceros from most part of the land. The major exception is the probable entry of the tiger during this period.
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Against this background the activities of the contemporary man have to be conjectured. The climatic change by itself was not acute enough to cause extinction or total migration. It is important however that heavy rainfall forced them into caves and rock-shelters. As there is no discernible geological Holocene deposit excepting the flood deposits on the river-bank caves are the only place where a stratified existence of the Early Holocene industries can be found. In this connection the finds at BHIMBETKA are important. The foothills on both sides of the NARMADA give better stratifications than the caves where formations did not change. Yet the industry which appears to belong to the Early Holocene is found only in the caves and not at other places in the neighbourhood. These industries obviously would have a close and genetic relationship with the Upper Mesolithic industries if they were not immigrant. In the plains a few vestiges of these industries may be found. They would obviously be surface finds. Posting them against river terraces would have no significant meaning outside the periglacial area.
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Next to the Early Holocene industries there is a widespread distribution of an industry observed mainly as a surface find and rarely in stratified deposits. This industry shows a surprising similarity. The earliest date of this industry is somewhat late. This is what is called the point-based microlithic industry [4.5] in contrast to the blade-based ones of the Chalcolithic [4.14]. Almost all the Mesolithic industries of India and Africa and the Upper Palaeolithic ones of Europe had the potentiality to usher in the point-based and the blade-based microlithic industries. Parallel evolutions do not depend simply on potentialities. For the industry, when first ushered in, would spread at a pace too quick to give another potential industry time enough to give rise to be its successor before its arrival there. It is therefore a mute point whether the point-based microliths of a later date were autochthonous or immigrant. This issue gets complicated with the find of this type of industries with minor variations from Europe to Asia.
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Needless to say that the Mesolithic people in India were a hunting-fishing group. There is no evidence whatsoever that agriculture was practised. In this respect they might have been industrially a developed group but economically a continuation of the Palaeolithic life-style. What varied was in the nature of the games hunted.
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Krishnan, M.S., 1960, *Geology of India & Burma*, Madras. Spate, O.H K , 1967, *India & Pakistan*, London. Wadia, D.N., 1958, *Geology of India*. London Zeuner, F.E., & Allchin, B., 1956, in *AI*, 12, pp 4-20 (for *teri* industries) For sites see respective entries in vol. II —K D BANERJEE