[Pramāṇa](https://indike.org/pramana/) › [Studies](https://indike.org/pramana/ins) › [Reference works](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference) › [An Encyclopaedia of Indian Archaeology](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989) › v1.c17.s3 # An Encyclopaedia of Indian Archaeology v1.c17.s3: 12.3 Cult Objects An Encyclopaedia of Indian Archaeology v1.c17.s3 - **Language:** English ### 12.3 Cult Objects ### [v1.c17.s3.1](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c17.s3.1) Cult/ritual objects comprise those especially produced in connection with certain magical rites, cult practices, rituals or ceremonials, such as ritualistic scenes, sacrificial pits or altars, ceremonial posts, plaques and rings with divinities and figurines, besides foundation tablets. ### [v1.c17.s3.2](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c17.s3.2) \*12.3.1 Chāyā-stambhas.\* \*Chāyā-stambhas\* were memorial pillars raised at NAGARJUNAKONDA in the Ikṣvāku period to commemorate the death of important persons associated with various social groups like soldiers, chiefs, artisans and religious heads. As many as 22 \*chāyā-stambhas\* have been found at the site; all of them are inscribed and many bear sculptured scenes connected with the life of the commemorated. \[See also 12.7.\] ### [v1.c17.s3.3](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c17.s3.3) \*12.3.2 Dhvaja-stambhas.\* Evidence of installing \*dhvaja-stambhas\* or emblematic flag-staff in honour of divinities in front of the shrines has also been found at VIDISA and NAGARJUNAKONDA. At VIDISA seven deep pits exposed near the Heliodoros pillar originally each held a \*dhvaja-stambha\* associated with a Viṣṇu temple of the Śuṅga period. At NAGARJUNAKONDA an inscribed \*dhvaja-stambha\* of Ikṣvāku times was located in front of a Śiva temple. ### [v1.c17.s3.4](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c17.s3.4) \*12.3.3 Foundation tablets.\* A carved brick tablet depicting an eight-petalled lotus with semiprecious stones on it was found fixed centrally at the bottom of a brick \*kuṇḍa\* in a temple complex at CHANDRAKETUGARH. It is perhaps associated with the foundation ritual of the \*kuṇḍa\*. More definite evidence of a foundation ritual in the form of a central tablet or brick with lotus surrounded by eight bricks engraved with various \*āyudhas\* associated with \*dik-pālas\* has been found in the early medieval shrines at Sagarhawa in the Nepalese \*tarai\* (Mitra, 1972, pp. 231-48). Here has also been found below the central tablet \*nidhi-kalaśas\* along with pieces of gold, precious stones and figures of snake and tortoise in some cases. The whole assemblage of these objects tallies with the details of the foundation ceremony of temples as prescribed in the \*Vāstu\* texts. ### [v1.c17.s3.5](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c17.s3.5) 12.3.4 \*Headless deity.\* \[cf. 12.6\]. A headless clay figure of some female deity with prominent breasts and curved arms kept in a coffin-like clay box was found buried in a floor of a house associated with the Jorwe culture \[4.14.6\] at INAMGAON. The figure seems to have been made for some kind of fertility rite. \[Also see MAHURJHARI.\] ### [v1.c17.s3.6](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c17.s3.6) 12.3.5 \*Hunting scenes.\* The earliest evidence of ritualistic practices is presented by prehistoric paintings \[13\] depicting hunting scenes associated with magical hunting rites before the actual hunt for its success. Pd II, Neolithic, of BURZAHOM has produced a stone slab engraved with the scene of stag hunt. It shows on the upper plane a dog and two rayed circles representing the sun. Below is a stag which stands centrally and is being attacked by a male with a bow and arrow on the front, while a female pierces the animal from behind with a spear. ### [v1.c17.s3.7](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c17.s3.7) 12.3.6 \*Ivory plaquettes.\* Plaquettes of ivory shaped as human figures in geometric form with highly stylized features have been reported from NAVDATOLI, NAGDA, UJJAIN, PRABHAS PATAN, ROPAR, SONKH and MATHURA; these have been dated to a period between \*c.\* 6th and 2nd centuries B.C. These figures are decked with incised lines and circlets forming part of a systematic decorative scheme betraying an established artistic tradition, although they have variations in shape. For instance the specimen from NAVDATOLI has a pentagonal head, short and featureless arms and the lower half of the body as a truncated triangle. The one from NAGDA has a rectangular head with wavy ends, rhombic body and two angular ends below attached to the projecting feet. The plaquette from ROPAR resembles a flat bottle in its general form. All the other figures are fragmentary. They can be associated with the primitive mother goddess on account of the presence of triangular decoration on their body. Although chronologically of the early historical period, they are typologically and stylistically somewhat similar to the eye goddess of w. Asia. It is not unlikely that these ivory plaquettes had some ritualistic connection with a disease like smallpox \[cf. 12.6.\]. ### [v1.c17.s3.8](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c17.s3.8) 12.3.7 \*Mother goddess plaques.\* Gold leaves embossed with a mother goddess figure standing in stiff frontal pose along with a small deposit of burnt human bones and charcoal were found in the excavation of two mounds at LAURIYA-NANDANGARH. An exact replica of such leaves was also found within the \*stūpa\* at PIPRAHWA. While some scholars have identified these figures as the representation of the earth goddess or Pṛthivī, these plaques (\*c.\* 3rd century B.C.) may have some ritualistic relation with the construction of an important structure like a \*stūpa\*. A small bronze figure of the same goddess from ROPAR (\*c.\* 600 to 200 B.C.) is also significant as a cult object. \[ See also 12.6.\] ### [v1.c17.s3.9](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c17.s3.9) 12.3.8 \*Objects of domestic worship.\* Plaques of stone, metal and terracotta depicting divinities and tiny figures of various deities, votive tablets, etc., which are commonly available in the Śaka-Kushan and later levels at various sites, form significant objects of daily \*devānuṣṭhāna.\* Amongst the notable such objects of Kushan times mention may be made of: plaques depicting Kārttikeya and a framed animal-faced goddess with a male deity in bronze; terracotta Viṣṇu and Mahiṣamardinī from SONKH; \*nāga\*, Bodhisattva and Lakṣmī figures of terracotta; stone tablets of homage (Jaina \*āyāgapaṭas\*) from Mathura; clay images of Naigameṣa; \*mātṛkās\* carved on clay tablets from various sites; and a \*yantra\* containing an \*aṣṭadala-padma\*, \*pīṭha\* with \*vṛtta\*, \*bindu\* and the outline of a \*bhupura\* below from CHIRAND. In the Gupta and later periods there are many important cultic figures, including Mahiṣamardinī plaques from AHICCHATRĀ, BHITA, RAJGHAT and MATHURA (which also yielded a plaque with Pārvatī; plaque with Viṣṇu in relief from UJJAIN; and scores of medieval \*pūjā-vigrahas\* of the Buddhists from NĀLANDĀ, RATNAGIRI, ANTICHAK and other sites; and small bronze coins including a Gaṇeśa from RAJBADIDANGA. ### [v1.c17.s3.10](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c17.s3.10) 12.3.9 \*Ring stones and discs.\* Small rings or discs of stone with a variety of formal reliefs of decorative and cultic character have been found at many sites. The carvings normally occupying only one face of the ring are generally arranged in concentric bands with the conventional figure of the mother goddess \[12.6\], palm trees. tional figure of the mother goddess \[12.6\], plam trees, varying thickness, their diameter is generally from about 3 to 9 cm. Some of them are without any figure of the mother goddess. There is a central hole in the ring stones whereas the discs are without it. Amongst the ring stones found in regular excavations, the notable ones are from Taxila (Mauryan), ROPAR Pd III (600-200 B.C.) and PURANA QILA (Mauryan). The one from Taxila has two decorative bands with rope design marking concentric circles and four figures of the standing mother goddess with a conventional tree in between. The specimen from PURANA QILA, although fragmentary, is analogous to the Taxila one except for a pipal-like tree by the side of the goddess. More interesting is a broken ring stone from ROPAR which has figures in the upper as well as lower bands. The upper one depicts a curved hut of MATHURA. The possibility of their being some kind of ritualistic pits cannot be ruled out. In the Śaka-Kushan period of the same site has been found a pit containing ashes and animal bones below the basal fillings of the inner mud fortification. It may have some ritualistic connection with the construction of the mud rampart. ### [v1.c17.s3.11](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c17.s3.11) Fig. 45. Ivory plaquettes: 1, Nagda; 2, Navdatoli ### [v1.c17.s3.12](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c17.s3.12) Fig. 46. Terracotta \*yantra\* from Chirand, Period III ### [v1.c17.s3.13](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c17.s3.13) leaves with a seated male facing a female devotee on one side and representation of the mother goddess and a standing male on the other. The inner band is also relieved with a mother goddess and a conventional tree. ### [v1.c17.s3.14](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c17.s3.14) An ornate disc from VAISALI, dated 100 B.C. to A.D 100, has a decorative edge and a central circle containing a mutilated figure surrounded by representations of the mother goddess and conventional trees. The presence of the mother goddess on these rings and discs associates them with the cult of Śakti including that of Śrī as objects of daily worship. \[\*See also\* 12.6.\] ### [v1.c17.s3.15](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c17.s3.15) \*12.3.10. Sacrificial pits and altars.\* The Harappans of LOTHAL and KALIBANGAN practised fire-sacrifices \[4.9\]: this is indicated at both the sites by a large number of shallow pits filled with ashes, charcoal and terracotta cakes \[6.27\]. The pits are rectangular or apsidal and are built either on mud platforms or inside houses. At LOTHAL they have a miniature low enclosure around and at KALIBANGAN a central stump in the form of a raised brick or block. A rectangular \*kuṇḍa\* lined with baked brick, with bones of bovines and antlers inside, has also been found at KALIBANGAN. Similar rectangular enclosures of baked brick, called fire altars by the excavator, have also been exposed at LOTHAL at public places. A terracotta ladle used in fire sacrifices and a post-hole for a wooden sacrificial post near a fire-altar are believed to be significant features of fire-worship at LOTHAL. ### [v1.c17.s3.16](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c17.s3.16) Some pits containing ashes, animal bones and pottery, especially grey-ware dishes, and in a few cases beads and terracotta figures of elephant are associated with Pd II (300-200 B.C.) in the habitation area of ### [v1.c17.s3.17](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c17.s3.17) However clearer evidence of the performance of Vedic sacrifices is reported from KAUŚĀMBĪ, where a raised altar has been identified as a \*śyena-citi\* (eagle-altar) connected with the celebration of \*puruṣa-medha\* (human sacrifice). The altar, located outside the e. city gate, has been dated to c. 2nd century B.C. The \*citi\* is shaped like an eagle flying towards n.-e. and is made of several brick layers over a pit for \*gārhapatya\* fire at the junction of the tail and body of the eagle. From the altar were recovered animal bones bearing incision marks, a tortoise shell, a human skull and pots. A fire-place was also located on it. The details of this altar tallies to a great extent with the description of such altars in the \*Śatapatha Brāhmaṇa\*. Equally interesting proof of \*śyena-citi\* datable to c. 3rd century A.D. has also been found at JAGATGRAM. This was also in the form of an eagle or hawk with stretched wings. According to inscribed bricks found here this marked the spot where a king named Śīlavarman performed his fourth \*aśva-medha\* sacrifice. The pit meant for the \*gārhapatya\* fire was also located here. ### [v1.c17.s3.18](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c17.s3.18) \*12.3.11. Seals and sealings.\* Seals or sealings of cultic value, dating from Gupta and post-Gupta times and bearing expressions like \*jitaṁ bhagavatā\* from PURANA QILA and \*namo bhagavate Vāsudevaya\* from BHITA eulogizing Viṣṇu, and Buddhist \*dhāraṇīs\* and creed \*ye dharmā\* etc., from many monastic sites \[12.8\] appear to be of magico-religious significance. ### [v1.c17.s3.19](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c17.s3.19) \*12.3.12 Yūpas.\* A few specimens of \*yūpas\* or sacrificial posts have also been found, but none in any systematic excavation. Two notable examples, one inscribed and other uninscribed, were recovered from the bed of the Yamuna near the city of Mathura. Of local sandstone, these posts have a square base, octagonal shaft and curved top decked with the relief of a flower garland. Above the basal portion the shaft bears a carved representation of a knotted rope. The record on the inscribed one says that it was set up by a Brāhmaṇa named Droṇala during a sacrificial session of 12 days in the reign of the Kushan king Vāsiṣka. \*Yūpa\* pillars of later dates have also been found in Rajasthan and Madhya Pradesh. ### [v1.c17.s3.20](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c17.s3.20) \*12.3.13 Miscellaneous objects.\* Minor ritualistic objects are of a diverse nature and date. A tiny \*triśūla\* of the Mauryan period from SONKH and a small ornate \*cakra\* with \*makara\* pedestal (c. 8th century) from RAJBADIDANGA are notable examples in copper of sacred \*āyudhas\* of a symbolic nature. A spouted \*kamaṇḍalu\* with a semicircular handle, narrow-mouthed globular body and pedestalled base in grey ware associated with the NBPW \[11.16\] from CHIRAND appears to be a jar used in \*dāna\* or other rites. In later periods some of the earthen sprinklers available from many sites seem to have been used as \*kamaṇḍalus\* \[6.28\]. Two inscribed \*śaṅkhas\* each from SALIHUNDAM (c. 2nd century) and NAGARJUNAKONDA (c. 3rd century) appear to have been cult objects. In fact the inscriptions respectively specify the shells as gifts to the \*caitya\* at Śālipeṭaka (SALIHUNDAM) and to the Aṣṭabhujasvāmin temple. Small gold and silver bowls with a central knob found at the Sarvadeva temple site at NAGARJUNAKONDA seem to be objects used in \*pūjā\*. A gold-plated copper spouted jar with a lid and a bronze \*ghaṇṭā\* bearing a pointed handle decked with human head and a \*pūrṇa-ghaṭa\* (dating about the 11th century) were found buried in a hoard at Achutrajapuram in Orissa. ### [v1.c17.s3.21](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c17.s3.21) Small spouted vases bearing the relief of a human figure on the exterior, with a spout marking the genital organ, from Śuṅga and later levels of PURANA QILA, MATHURA and BHITA are probably associated with some fertility ritual. ### [v1.c17.s3.22](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c17.s3.22) Mitra, D., 1972, \*Excavations at Tilaura-kot and Kodan & Exploration in the Nepalese Tarai\*, Kathmandu (for Sagarhawa). Rao, S.R., 1973, \*Lothal & the Indus Civilization\*, Bombay. For other sites see respective entries in vol. II—M.C. 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