Pramāṇa · Search · About · API

An Encyclopaedia of Indian Archaeology v1.c19.s12: 14.12 Monastic Establishments

An Encyclopaedia of Indian Archaeology v1.c19.s12

Language
English

Contents

14.12 Monastic Establishments

14.12.1 Brāhmaṇical

v1.c19.s12.t1.1

While it is certain that Brāhmaṇical monks had their own *āśramas* no remnants of any such establishments going back to ancient times have come to light. It is likely that such cloisters as the ones enclosing the Hoysaḷa temples in Karnataka served as temporary residences of wandering monks. More permanent establishments in the form of *maṭhas* were also in existence all over the country as is evident from references in literature and inscriptions, but their remains are lacking. Brāhmaṇical cave-temples abound as Buddhist and Jaina ones but they do not have the aspect of monastic residences.

v1.c19.s12.t1.2

—H.P. RAY

14.12.2 Buddhist

v1.c19.s12.t2.1

The history of the Buddhist monastic settlements in India covers a time-span of about two millennia. It began with the idea of the wandering life and culminated in the emergence of permanent establishments almost as large as townships.

v1.c19.s12.t2.2

In Buddha’s life-time itself some of his devotees offered *ārāmas* or parks to the community. These had not only enclosures but also structures inside as is evident from the reliefs of the Jetavanārāma in the sculptures of the 2nd century B.C. from Bharhut and AMARAVATI. The Jetavanārāma of ŚRĀVASTĪ and the Ghoṣitārāma of KAUŚĀMBĪ have been identified on the basis of epigraphical evidence, while excavation at the site of the Jīvakāmravaṇa at RAJGIR have disclosed the full plan of one of the earliest settlements datable to the 6th-5th century B.C. Consisting of a few halls, mostly elliptical on plan, the Jīvakāmravaṇa monastery has no *stūpa* or any other place of worship within it.

v1.c19.s12.t2.3

Aśoka was responsible for the propagation of Buddhism and for several monastic establishments at sacred places like Lumbini, BODH-GAYA, SARNATH, KUŚINAGARA, SANKISA, VAIŚĀLĪ, etc. He also built innumerable *stūpas*. The brick *stūpa* inside the stone casing of Stūpa 1 at SANCHI and the core of the Dharmarājikā *stūpas* at SARNATH and Taxila may be attributed to him. Usually a monolithic column of Chunar sandstone, like the ones at LAURIYA-NANDANGARH, Lauriya-Araraj, SARNATH and SANCHI, stood in front of his *stūpas*. Aśoka also built apsidal and circular structures at SANCHI and BAIRAT respectively. Of the rock-cut caves the ones at Nagarjuni and Barabar in Dt Gaya were excavated by him for the Ājīvikas.

v1.c19.s12.t2.4

Aśoka's effort to propagate the ideals of Buddhism in India and abroad yielded tangible results in the next five centuries when popular participation transformed the character of the Buddhist faith and the pattern of architecture. The railed *stūpas* at Bharhut, AMARAVATI and SANCHI, the quadrangular rail around the Bodhi tree at BODH-GAYA and the various rock-cut *caitya-gṛhas* at the cave-resorts like Ajanta (Caves 9 and 10), Bedsa, Bhaja, Kondane, Nasik (Cave 18), Pitalkhora (Cave 3), Karla, Kanheri, Kondavite, Junnar, etc., in Maharashtra and Sana, Talaja and others in Gujarat came up, as the donative inscriptions show, largely on the contributions of lay devotees belonging to different social strata. These *caitya-gṛhas* were mostly apsidal on plan and were copies of timber architecture. There are however quadrilateral (Kuda, Karad, Sailarwadi, etc.) and circular *stūpa* chapels (Cave 3 of Junnar and Kondavite) also. The *vihāras* were situated close by but not as an integral unit of the *caitya-gṛha* or the place of worship.

v1.c19.s12.t2.5

Significantly, with the rise of various organized sects during the early Christian centuries, the monastic establishments, specially of Gandhāra, evolved into well-knit units, both the *vihāras* and the places of worship, including image-chapels, forming an inseparable whole. This tradition of combining the place of worship with the *vihāra* or *saṅghārāma* can be noticed as early as the 3rd century B.C. in Andhra. The early phase of the *stūpas* at AMARAVATI, Bhattiprolu and Kesanapalli, all in Dt Guntur, belongs to the 2nd century B.C.; it gave rise to a rich tradition of sculptural art comparable to the art of Bharhut and SANCHI. Belonging to the same phase is the circular *caitya-gṛha*, with *vihāra* close by, at Guntapalli—the entire complex being cut out of rock. In course of time more than 30 settlements sprang up along the coastal route and in the plains of the Krishna and the Godavari basins. By and large these establishments are examples of brick construction. A developed monastic unit here consisted of a principal *stūpa*, two apsidal *caitya-gṛhas*—one for the *stūpa* and the other for the image—besides a three-winged *vihāra* enclosing a pillared hall. More than 30 monastic establishments, accommodating about 450 monks, grew up at NAGARJUNAKONDA itself during the 3rd century A.D. Datable to the 4th century the settlement at DEVNIMORI in Gujarat is also a large brick-built complex the like of which came to light also at VANAVASI, Dt N. Kanara, and SANNATHI, Dt Gulbarga, in Karnataka.

v1.c19.s12.t2.6

A gradual increase in the monastic population may also be noticed on the w. coast. For instance Junnar has 140 caves of which 131 are *vihāras*. Similarly out of 112 caves at Kanheri 107 were meant exclusively for residence. This influx might have begun in the 5th century, when the Vākāṭakas and the Guptas held sway over different parts of India. In most of these establishments a square image-shrine was integrated with monk-cells arrayed on either side, and with these was generally associated a fine tradition of sculptural art and murals. The later caves of Ajanta and the excavations at Aurangabad, Ellora and Bagh belong to this period.

v1.c19.s12.t2.7

With the advent of the Gupta rule many older settlements like MATHURA, SARNATH and BODH-GAYA regained their prominence while new ones like those at RATNAGIRI in Orissa and CHANDRAKETUGARH in W. Bengal also cropped up. Fa-Hien saw Buddhism undoubtedly in a flourishing state in the 5th century. By about the 4th-5th century, as the excavation of a monastery at KĀVERĪPAṬṬINAM reveals, Buddhism had reached the heart of the Tamil country. In Kerala the evidence ranging from the 7th to the 10th centuries is rather sporadic.

v1.c19.s12.t2.8

When Hiuen Tsang visited India in the 7th century many monasteries in different parts of India had fallen into disuse. At the same time this was the period when *saṅghārāmas* were transformed into seats of learning and these were generally larger settlements with Buddhist temples as the main place of worship. NĀLANDĀ, which was founded in the Gupta period, rose to great fame, thanks to the efforts of Harṣavardhana (606-47). Excavations here have yielded no less than 11 monasteries, all of them at least double-storeyed, besides a number of towering Buddhist temples. This township must have accommodated 3000 inmates and attracted pupils from other Buddhist countries. By I Tsing's times who landed at Tāmralipta in 773, Valabhī in Gujarat had gained as much importance as NĀLANDĀ as a seat of learning.

v1.c19.s12.t2.9

However the idea of the *saṅghārāma* as a seat of learning took its final shape under the Pālas (8th to 12th centuries). The Somapura-mahā-vihāra (Paharpur in Bangladesh), founded by Dharmapāla (770-810), having a tall terraced edifice surrounded by a quadrangular monastery, was the largest of the Buddhist settlements. Other *mahā-vihāras* including Vikramaśilā (Patharghata-ANTICHAK area), Odantapuri (Bihar Sharif) and Jāgaddala (in n. Bengal), the last one built by Rāmapala (1077-1120) sprang up. By this time the Vajrayāna cult along with the Tantric esoteric rites became popular throughout India.

v1.c19.s12.t2.10

Aiyappan, A., & Srinivasan, P.R., 1960, *Story of Buddhism with Special Reference to s. India*, Madras. Barua, B., 1931 & 1934, *Gaya & Bodh-Gaya*, 2 vols. Calcutta. Beal, S., 1884, *Buddhist Record of the w. World*, London (for Fa-Hien & Hiuen Tsang). Burgess, J., 1883. *Report on the Buddhist Cave Temples & their Inscriptions*, London Cunningham. A., 1962, *Stupa of Bharhut*, reprint, Varansai, Deva, K., 1964, in *Archaeological Remains, Monuments & Museums*, ASI, New Delhi. Dutt, S., 1962, *Buddhist Monks & Monasteries of India*, London. Fergusson, J., & Burgess, J., 1880, *Cave Temples of India*, London Marshall, J., *Taxila*, 3 vols., Cambridge. Mitra, D., 1971, *Buddhist Monuments*, Calcutta. Sarkar, H., 1966, *Studies in Early Buddhist Architecture*, Delhi.—H. SARKAR

14.12.3 Jaina

v1.c19.s12.t3.1

Jaina literature abounds in references to *stūpas*, but the extant remains date only from the Kushan period. Sporadic diggings show that the Jaina establishment at Kankali-tila, MATHURA, grew up around a *stūpa* which formed the supreme object of veneration. No single monument has, however, been identified as yet. From the representations on *āyāga-paṭas* it appears that the Jaina *stūpas* were not much different from the Buddhist *stūpas* 1, 2 and 3 of Sanchi. They were without embellishments, the urge for decoration having found expression on the railings and gateways. Epigraphical evidence also points to the existence of a temple and *vihāras* for the residence of monks in the 2nd century B.C., but it is not possible to reconstruct these structures.

v1.c19.s12.t3.2

An artificial cave at Pabhosa, Dt Allahabad, high up on the face of a hill, has a stone bed with pillow. On the basis of inscriptions it has been thought that the cave was meant for Jaina *arhats* and was excavated possibly in the 2nd century B.C. Dating from the 1st century B.C. to the 1st century A.D. are the caves of UDAYAGIRI and KHANDAGIRI in Orissa. The interior of these caves is austerely plain and they are planned as dormitories as is proved by the sloping rise of the floor at the rear end, extending from one side-wall to the other, to serve the purpose of a running pillow. In a few instances the façades and the brackets are decorated with carvings and sculptures. Designed primarily as *vihāras* for Jaina recluses, not one of the caves was meant as a shrine. Excavation at the top of UDAYAGIRI hill has, however, yielded a large apsidal structure which no doubt provided the place of worship. In the absence of definite evidence it is difficult to determine the object enshrined in the structure. At a later date some of these *vihāras* were converted into shrines by minor alterations and with the addition of reliefs of *tīrthaṅkaras*.

v1.c19.s12.t3.3

Even though Bihar was the earliest stronghold of Jainism and there are references to several monastic establishments, yet the only monument identified so far is the Sonbhandar caves at RAJGIR dating to the 3rd-4th centuries A.D., though an earlier origin has been suggested. These caves are oblong chambers for the residence of monks. Dating from about the same time is a group of 20 monastic rock-cut cells at Junagadh near Girnar known as caves of Bawa-Pyara's Math. Arranged in three lines, these caves have a very early form of *caitya*-window ornament.

v1.c19.s12.t3.4

Scattered all over the Tamil country, at several spots in the E. Ghats, particularly in the region around Madurai, is a series of natural caverns made habitable by the cutting of beds and drip-ledges. These austere cells were meant as residences for Jaina recluses. As in Orissa, the nature of several of these caves was altered in about the 7th to the 9th century by carving sculptures and reliefs.

v1.c19.s12.t3.5

The paucity of architectural and sculptural representations of the Gupta age shows that after the Kushan period, Jainism suffered a great setback. Of the few Jaina centres mention may be made of those at Sira Pahari, Deogarh, Udaigiri and Vidisha.

v1.c19.s12.t3.6

In the early medieval period Jainism seems to have staged a comeback as is evidenced by the large number of monuments all over the country. The establishments are however no longer the plain and austere cells of the early period: instead the temples now assume sprawling dimensions richly decorated and embellished with sculptural representations. As already mentioned, several *vihāras* of earlier times are converted into shrines and are carved with sculptures and reliefs.

v1.c19.s12.t3.7

In the 7th century Hiuen Tsang found Jainism flourishing in Bihar and Bengal. RAJGIR with its ancient Jaina temple on the Vaibhāra hill was an important centre and at Puṇḍravardhana in n. Bengal the Digambaras were numerous. Several ancient Jaina shrines have been located in the Dts Dhanbad and Purulia. Jainism seems to have penetrated into Assam as well, though feebly, as is evidenced by the caves at Surajpahar, Dt Goalpara.

v1.c19.s12.t3.8

In Orissa archaeological remains are abundant to show the popularity of the Jaina faith. Significant among the sites are Podasingdi, Dt Keonjhar, and Charampa, Dt Balasore. Kundalpur, Pithaora, Badoh, Gyaraspur and Deogarh were the important Jaina centres in c. India, while AKOTA, Valabhī, Vasantgarh, Osia, Gopagiri, Jalor, Sachor, etc., were well known in w. India. At Ellora Jaina shrines formed the culmination of monolithic temples while at Aihole, Jaina temples form the landmark of the Chalukyan style of architecture. Colossal Jaina establishments sprang up in w. India under the Chalukya rulers at such places as Mt Abu, Girnar, Satrunjaya, etc.

v1.c19.s12.t3.9

As elsewhere, s. India also witnessed an active build-up of Jaina institutions in the early medieval period. The Jainas were widespread and almost every village had a considerable Jaina population as is attested by the ruins and other extant remains. Tirupparuttikkunram, Chettipatti, Sravanabelgola, Tirumalai and Talakkavu were the important Jaina centres, to name only a few.

v1.c19.s12.t3.10

In spite of the profusion of Jaina monuments, there is definite evidence to show that certain Jaina establishments suffered at the hands of the Śaivites and Vaiṣṇavites. The Sonbhandar caves at RAJGIR were requisitioned by the votaries of Viṣṇu in the 8th century and the Jaina monastery at Paharpur was converted into a Buddhist *vihāra* by Dharmapāla. So far as monastic (as distinct from temple) architecture is concerned, Jainism, unlike Buddhism, does not seem to have developed any well-defined pattern.

v1.c19.s12.t3.11

Ghosh, A., ed., 1974-5, *Jaina. Art & Architecture.*, New Delhi.—H.P. RAY

Linked texts (31)