[Pramāṇa](https://indike.org/pramana/) › [Studies](https://indike.org/pramana/ins) › [Reference works](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference) › [An Encyclopaedia of Indian Archaeology](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989) › v1.c19.s6 # An Encyclopaedia of Indian Archaeology v1.c19.s6: 14.6 Building Materials An Encyclopaedia of Indian Archaeology v1.c19.s6 - **Language:** English ### 14.6 Building Materials ### [v1.c19.s6.1](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c19.s6.1) \*14.6.1 Brick.\* Clay being easily available in plenty in alluvial lands was economical and could be moulded in desired shapes, dried in the sun for ready use or baked to last longer to be used in buildings. Unbaked mud brick or adobe was used extensively in pre-Harappa \[4.8\] and Harappa times \[4.9\] and was in use down to the historical period. Even now it can be seen at arid or semi-arid regions or in undeveloped rural areas. ### [v1.c19.s6.2](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c19.s6.2) The soil used for making brick contains clay and such minerals as quartz, mica, feldspar, calcite, kaolinite, etc., as clay results from weathering of eruptive feldspathic rocks. The properties of good clay depend upon its plasticity which is greatly affected by impurities. The degree of plasticity of clay depends on its mineralogical and granulometric composition, on the shape and nature of the grain and on the content of soluble salts and organic impurities. The plasticity may be enhanced by adding highly plastic clays and lowered by introducing quartz, sand, slag, coal fines, organic impurities like husks of grains, etc. So rice-husk found in ancient bricks was mixed to lower the plasticity of clay. In the \*Yajurveda-Saṁhitā\* and the \*Śatapatha Brāhmaṇa\* the hair of goat, very fine sand, rock-flour and iron filings are enjoined for mixing. In the highly plastic alluvial clay these admixtures were required to bind together the non-plastic materials and strengthen the brick. Similarly the \*Baudhāyana Śulba-sūtra\* prescribes the mixing of clay with \*ukhya-bhasma\*. Clay mixed with iron filings when fired gives a red colour with excessive oxygen in the kiln, while a deficiency of oxygen lends a dark brown or even black colour. Lightweight high-porosity brick is produced by mixing with clay substances like saw-dust, coal-dust, chalk, dolomite, ground mark, etc. which are capable of releasing carbon dioxide during burning. To reduce the load of the roof on the Ramappa temple (A.D. 1203) at Palampet in Andhra Pradesh in stone the \*śikhara\* is made in brickwork, the bricks being so light as to float in water. ### [v1.c19.s6.3](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c19.s6.3) Usually rectangular, the shape of the brick is varied to suit a particular use. The composition of clay too changes according to the condition of soil of a site, but ever-changing is the size, not only through the ages but also during the same period of a given cultural horizon at different sites. The following brick measurements demonstrate this point: pre-Harappa—30×20×10 cm; Harappa—50 to 25×25 to 12·5×12·5 to 6·35 cm; post-Harappa—33 to 27·9×15·2 to 12·7×12·7 to 8·9 cm; early historical—60 to 20×31·75 to 16×10 to 5 cm; and late historical—60 to 11×28·6×8×12 to 4 cm. \[These only exemplify the variety of brick sizes but do not exhaust the innumerable sizes found in excavated buildings.\] ### [v1.c19.s6.4](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c19.s6.4) Two other shapes—trapezoidal or wedge-shaped and L-shaped—are also found. The former is used both by the Harappans and their predecessors, seemingly for circular structures like a barn or the top of the floor around the rim of ring-wells or for wells. This is found also in the early historical period in one of the \*stūpas\* at LAURIYA-NANDANGARH and in the \*stūpa\* at KAUNDINYAPURA and in the apsidal part of a \*caitya\*-hall of the Kushan period at RISHIKESH. In a reservoir of the same time at KĀVERĪPAṬṬINAM chamfered and round-edged bricks are used. The L-shape is suitable for the paving of bath-rooms at corners as right-angled quoins. In the \*Śulba-sūtras\* the shapes required for various types of altars are: pentagonal, triangular and trapezoidal. Remains of altars called \*śyena-citi\* have been found—one at KAUŚĀMBĪ of \*c.\* 2nd century B.C. and the other at JAGATGRAM of the 3rd century A.D., where the bricks are inscribed. The Kṣatrapas, Guptas and later rulers used decorative pieces of forms produced by moulding. The practice was in vogue for quite some time in temples at such places as Bhitargaon, Nibiakhera, SIRPUR, Rajim, NĀLANDĀ, VIKRAMAŚĪLĀ, etc., and survived in e. India till the medieval period. ### [v1.c19.s6.5](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c19.s6.5) A study of the various brick sizes through the ages will show that large rectangular bricks were used in India. In the early medieval period while in w. Asia mostly square bricks were used the Byzantines used small rectangular thin bricks which were better suited to arches and domes where the brickwork had to be under tension. The potential tensile resistance of the individual units of brickwork can be developed by frictional forces induced or enhanced by a strong mortar at the horizontal bed-joints. This aspect along with the convenience of workmen to handle appear to have influenced the size of bricks of the later period. In corbelled constructions of the early period for compression and cantilever action thick large-sized bricks were needed. \[Small-sized but well-baked \*lakhauri\* bricks came into use in Mughal times.\] ### [v1.c19.s6.6](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c19.s6.6) \*14.6.2 Masons' marks.\* Masons' marks, i.e. marks or symbols incised on stones used in buildings consist of letters of the alphabet, symbols or personal names in early historical and late historical periods. It is likely that the marks were used by guilds or individuals working on a contract basis. Perhaps it is for this reason that at the same site many types of marks are available. The occurrence of the same mark at two different places separated by time and space may suggest either a migration of masons or guilds or the use of the same marks by their descendants in a heraldic manner. In Stūpa 2 at Sanchi the occurrence of Kharoṣṭhī \[20.4.3\] letters as against Brāhmī \[20.4.2\] has been interpreted as signifying the employment of workers from the n.-w. who were also responsible for the carving of foreign art motifs and figures there. At NAGARJUNAKONDA the marks show that particular guilds specialized in special types of work and that the same guild was also associated with the works at AMARAVATI. Another emergent fact is that starting with modest constructions a guild in course of time rose to prominence to participate in large-scale constructions. In the early railing of BODH-GAYA same Brāhmī letters were used on the pillar-shafts and again on the fixed pillar-bases, so that while fixing the pillars the right shaft would go into the right base. ### [v1.c19.s6.7](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c19.s6.7) Barua, B.M., 1930, in \*Indian Hist. Quarterly\*, 6, pp. 1-3 (for Bodh-Gaya). Sarkar, H., 1968-71, in \*Bharati\*, 12-13 pp. 226-35 for Nagarjunakonda). For sites see respective entries in vol. II.—R. SENGUPTA ### [v1.c19.s6.8](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c19.s6.8) \*14.6.3 Mortars and Plasters.\* Plaster is the material used for coating walls, etc., while mortar is the binding material between brick or stone. Sometimes the same material may be used for both the purposes. In ancient times mud was almost exclusively used as mortar and plaster, though lime is rarely used as at NAGARJUNAKONDA. The following paragraphs mention only such materials (other than mud) the composition of which is available. ### [v1.c19.s6.9](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c19.s6.9) At Mohenjo-daro gypsum cement of light grey colour was used in certain buildings. It consists of variable mixture of sand (20 to 40%) and gypsum (75 to 45%) or lime (2 to 25%). Lime mortar with a sizeable percentage of magnesium is also used at Harappa. It contains calcium carbonate (26 to 57%), magnesium carbonate (4 to 11%) and sand and clay (34 to 61%). The high percentage of sand and clay in lime plaster suggests that it was prepared by burning \*kankar\* (calcareous nodules). The use of lime was restricted to drains and floors. ### [v1.c19.s6.10](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c19.s6.10) The plaster samples of the early historical period of KAUŚĀMBĪ are mainly of lime, in which the ratio of sand and lime varies from 1:1 to 3:1. But some plaster samples with sand: lime ratio of 3:4 and 4:3 have also been reported. In the mortar samples from KAUŚĀMBĪ sand and slaked lime are mixed in the ratios of 1:1 and 3:2. ### [v1.c19.s6.11](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c19.s6.11) The analysed sample of the plaster from Ajanta used as the ground for paintings is made of ferruginous earth reinforced with rock, grit or sand and fibrous vegetable materials, with no lime. But traces of a whitish layer on its surface just below the pigment layer indicate the presence of lime, kaolin or gypsum. ### [v1.c19.s6.12](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c19.s6.12) The sample of plaster from Ellora used for the same purpose is made of ferruginous earth containing a large percentage of silica and a fair proportion of iron and alumina. Lime is present to the extent of 6·24%. Organic matter and vegetable fibres are also present. ### [v1.c19.s6.13](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c19.s6.13) In the plaster from the Gupta buildings of BHITARI a high percentage (74) of silica along with 14% of lime is present. Iron oxide and alumina contents measure up to 9%. Magnesia and alkalies are also present, while gypsum is completely absent. ### [v1.c19.s6.14](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c19.s6.14) In the Coḷa painted plasters a pure and rich lime containing calcium oxide up to 66% is used for finished plaster with small quanities of gypsum associated with it. Iron, aluminium and magnesium are also present. ### [v1.c19.s6.15](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c19.s6.15) The following are the reports of the chemical analysis of the plaster and mortar samples mentioned above, with the results for lime and magnesia recalculated from the original results of the analysts. ### [v1.c19.s6.16](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c19.s6.16) Mohenjo-daro (gypsum mortar from wall): CaSO₄. 2H₂O, 63·25. CaCO₃, 1·64. Sand+clay, 31·52. Gypsum: sand, 2:1. ### [v1.c19.s6.17](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c19.s6.17) Mohenjo-daro (lime mortar from drain): CaSO₄. 2H₂O, tr. CaCO₃, 39·96. Sand+clay, 47·48. MgCO₃, 8·83. Lime: clay, 1:1. ### [v1.c19.s6.18](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c19.s6.18) Harappa (lime mortar): CaSO₄.2H₂O, tr. CaCO₃, 35·02. Sand+clay, 51·39. MgCO₃, 10·62, Lime: sand, 2:3. ### [v1.c19.s6.19](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c19.s6.19) Kauśāmbī (plaster): CaCO₃, 49·17. Sand+clay, 38·09. MgCO₃, 2·72. Al₂O₃+Fe₂O₃, 9·67. Lime: sand, 2:3. ### [v1.c19.s6.20](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c19.s6.20) Kauśāmbī (mortar): CaCO₃, 49·97. Sand+clay, 29·95. MgCO₃, 2·72. Al₂O₃+Fe₂O₃, 4.78. Lime: clay, 2:1. ### [v1.c19.s6.21](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c19.s6.21) Ajanta (rough plaster): CaCO₃, 1·78. Sand+clay, 60·00. MgCO₃, 2·00. Al₂O₃+Fe₂O₃, 27.00. Mud plaster. ### [v1.c19.s6.22](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c19.s6.22) Bhitari (plaster): CaCO₃, 13·80. Sand+clay, 73·50. MgCO₃, 5·42. A1₂O₃+Fe₂O₃, 8·64. Lime: sand, 1:5. ### [v1.c19.s6.23](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c19.s6.23) Coḷa (rough plaster): CaCO₃, 49·76. Sand+clay, 49·97. MgCO₃, 1·07. Al₂O₃+Fe₂O₃, 1·89. Lime: sand, 1:1. ### [v1.c19.s6.24](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c19.s6.24) Coḷa (finished plaster): CaCO₃, 90·72. Sand+clay, 7·02. MgCO₃, 0·77. A1₂O₃+Fe₂O₃, 1·06. Lime: sand, 12:1. ### [v1.c19.s6.25](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c19.s6.25) Lal, B.B., 1967, in Ghosh, A., ed., \*Ajanta Murals\*, New Delhi, p. 53. Prakash, S., & Rawat, N.S., 1965, in \*Chemical Studies of some\* \*Indian Arch. Antiquities\*, Bombay. Paramasivan, S., 1937, \*Technical Studies in the Field of Fine Arts\*, 5, pp. 228-31 Sana Ullah. M., in \*ASI-AR 1926-7\*, p. 227; \*1929-30\*, p. 208.—H.C. BHARDWAJ ### [v1.c19.s6.26](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c19.s6.26) \*14.6.4 Tiles.\* Tiles are rectangular on plan with rounded corners. With a flat upper side they have three or four channels in the form of grooves. On the under-surface a groove runs lengthwise for receiving the ridge of the adjacent tile. In general they are made of very gritty clay mixed with straw. They were kept in position by driving nails in two holes at the breadthwise top into the wooden rafters of the roof. A few glass tiles have been reported from Taxila. ### [v1.c19.s6.27](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c19.s6.27) Perhaps the earliest tiles are known at JADERUA and TRIPURĪ, datable to the 5th-4th century B.C. At CAMPĀ and RĀJGHĀṬ they occur in levels of the 3rd and 2nd centuries B.C.; especially at the latter site they have been extensively found. KAUŚĀMBĪ and SONKH have yielded them in the 2nd and 1st century B.C. levels. ### [v1.c19.s6.28](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c19.s6.28) From the 2nd century B.C. to the 2nd century A.D. tiles are found abundantly used in c. and w. India and the Deccan. Most of the sites are of the Sātavāhana period. The tiles of BRAHMAPURI measure 25 × 13 × 2 cm and have bevelled edges on two sides with three grooves at one end and two holes at the opposite end. They were found along with charred wooden pieces and a number of nails. The ones from BAIRAT measure 35 × 22 × 7 cm. KAUNDINAPURA has yielded two types: one is rectangular and measures 17 to 25 × 15 to 17 cm and the other is larger, up to 20 cm in breadth. They have shallow upper grooves leaving the surface flat; a narrow U-shaped or crescentic depression near the holes is a feature absent in the first type. The tiles from KARAD measure 28 × 17 cm. Similar tiles also occur at BAHAL, BHOKARDAN, ERAN, MAHESHWAR, NAGARI, NASIK, PAITHAN, PAUNAR, PEDDABANKUR, PRAKASH, RAIRH, TER, TRIPURĪ, UJJAIN and so on. The NEVASA tiles range in measurement from 13 to 43 × 10 to 14 cm, with two to five grooves. At BESNAGAR \*ASI-AR\*, \*1913-14\*, pp, 204-5; \*1914-5\*, p. 4) they measure 36 × 22 cm; a few of them are decorated with foliage designs, ripples and scrolls. ### [v1.c19.s6.29](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c19.s6.29) Tiles datable to the 3rd and 4th centuries occur at many places. Some of them are large in size. At MAHESHWAR they have the maximum breadth of 150 cm and thickness of 21 to 32 cm. Contemporary evidence of tiles is available from AHAR², BANGARH, DEVNIMORI, DWARKA, INTWA, KAMREJ, KORKAI, KUMRAHAR, RANG MAHAL, SALIHUNDAM, etc. At DEVNIMORI there are two types: one is rectangular and the other is semicircular with two perforations. At RANG MAHAL tiles are carved with rosette decoration. At AMBARI, BANAVASI and RAJBADIDANGA tiles have been found in the 6th and 7th century levels. ### [v1.c19.s6.30](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c19.s6.30) For sites see respective entries in vol II.—C. MARGABANDHU ## Linked texts (32) - [Baudhāyanaśulbasūtra](https://indike.org/pramana/in.vedanga.kalpa.sulba.baudhayana) — Baudhāyana, Sanskrit - [Harappā](https://indike.org/pramana/inp.site.harappa) - [Mohenjo-daro](https://indike.org/pramana/inp.site.mohenjo-daro) - [Śatapathabrāhmaṇa](https://indike.org/pramana/in.veda.brahmana.satapatha) — Yājñavalkya & Śāṇḍilya (Vedic teacher), Sanskrit - [Sonkh](https://indike.org/pramana/inp.site.sonkh) - [Kauśāmbī](https://indike.org/pramana/inp.site.kausambi) - [Nālandā](https://indike.org/pramana/inp.site.nalanda) - [Bodh Gayā](https://indike.org/pramana/inp.site.bodhgaya) - [Nevasa](https://indike.org/pramana/inp.site.nevasa) - [Nāsik](https://indike.org/pramana/inp.site.nasik) - [Nāgārjunakoṇḍa](https://indike.org/pramana/inp.site.nagarjunakonda) - [Maheswar](https://indike.org/pramana/inp.site.maheswar) - [Jagatgram](https://indike.org/pramana/inp.site.jagatgram) - [Salihundam](https://indike.org/pramana/inp.site.salihundam) - [Ramappa Temple](https://indike.org/pramana/inp.monument.ramappa-temple) - [Prakash](https://indike.org/pramana/inp.site.prakash) - [Kumrahar](https://indike.org/pramana/inp.site.kumrahar) - [Bahal](https://indike.org/pramana/inp.site.bahal) - [Devnimori](https://indike.org/pramana/inp.site.devnimori) - [Rajbadi-danga (Jadupur)](https://indike.org/pramana/inp.site.rajbadi-danga-jadupur) - [Peddabankur](https://indike.org/pramana/inp.site.peddabankur) - [Bhitari](https://indike.org/pramana/inp.site.bhitari) - [Jaderua](https://indike.org/pramana/inp.site.jaderua) - [Ambari](https://indike.org/pramana/inp.site.ambari) - [Bhokardan](https://indike.org/pramana/inp.site.bhokardan) - [Lauriya-Nandangarh](https://indike.org/pramana/inp.site.lauriya-nandangarh) - [Bairat](https://indike.org/pramana/inp.site.bairat-varanasi) - [Ajanta](https://indike.org/pramana/inp.site.ajanta) - [Karad](https://indike.org/pramana/inp.site.karad) - [Kamrej](https://indike.org/pramana/inp.site.kamrej) - [Dvārakā](https://indike.org/pramana/inp.site.dvaraka) - [Brahmapuri](https://indike.org/pramana/inp.site.brahmapuri) --- Source: [https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c19.s6](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c19.s6) · Pramāṇa