[Pramāṇa](https://indike.org/pramana/) › [Studies](https://indike.org/pramana/ins) › [Reference works](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference) › [An Encyclopaedia of Indian Archaeology](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989) › v1.c19.s9.2 # An Encyclopaedia of Indian Archaeology v1.c19.s9.2 An Encyclopaedia of Indian Archaeology v1.c19.s9.2 - **Language:** English ### [v1.c19.s9.2](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c19.s9.2) The emergence of fortifications in India can be traced back to the Copper/Bronze Age around the middle of the 3rd millennium B.C. in the pre-Harappa period \[4.8\] at KALIBANGAN. However a more interesting variety of fortified settlements is presented by Harappa sites \[4.9\]. Major cities and townships connected with the Indus civilization have fortified citadels, although the exact details of their superstructure are not known. In most cases they are roughly in the form of a parallelogram or formal oblong with quadrangular bastions at the angles and other important constructional points. It appears that the overall layout of the settlement was mainly based on the plan of the walled enclosures. With a few exceptions the enclosures are built of mud brick of uniform size. Noteworthy Harappa fortifications on the Indian side have been located at KALIBANGAN, SURKOTADA, DESALPUR and BANAWALI. At DESALPUR and SURKOTADA stone is profusely used in the defences as veneer. At KALIBANGAN the citadel and the township complexes are separately built but at other places there is only one massive defensive enclosure with two main walled divisions. At KALIBANGAN the citadel complex is divided into two almost equal-sized rhombs with two entrances. The formal planning of the Harappa fortifications without a moat suggests that primarily these were the outcome of the socio-political practices and economic necessities and their military importance was secondary. - [Previous: v1.c19.s9.1](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c19.s9.1) - [Next: v1.c19.s9.3](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c19.s9.3) - [Up: v1.c19.s9](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c19.s9) ## Linked texts (3) - [Kālībangan](https://indike.org/pramana/inp.site.kalibangan) - [Banawali](https://indike.org/pramana/inp.site.banawali) - [Surkotada](https://indike.org/pramana/inp.site.surkotada) --- Source: [https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c19.s9.2](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c19.s9.2) · Pramāṇa