[Pramāṇa](https://indike.org/pramana/) › [Studies](https://indike.org/pramana/ins) › [Reference works](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference) › [An Encyclopaedia of Indian Archaeology](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989) › v1.c19.s9 # An Encyclopaedia of Indian Archaeology v1.c19.s9: 14.9 Fortifications and Moats An Encyclopaedia of Indian Archaeology v1.c19.s9 - **Language:** English ### 14.9 Fortifications and Moats ### [v1.c19.s9.1](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c19.s9.1) Fortifications in the archaeological context can be defined as protective or defensive works or enclosures around any settlement or area with or without a ditch or moat. Such defensive structures are built on a formal or informal plan and generally bear a massive character. At times such structural works cover only three sides of the respective habitational area. The principal structural features of any ancient fortification are massive walls with attached quadrangular or semicircular bastions to strengthen the walled structure and to serve as watch-towers, besides one or more gates sometimes even with the guard-rooms. ### [v1.c19.s9.2](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c19.s9.2) The emergence of fortifications in India can be traced back to the Copper/Bronze Age around the middle of the 3rd millennium B.C. in the pre-Harappa period \[4.8\] at KALIBANGAN. However a more interesting variety of fortified settlements is presented by Harappa sites \[4.9\]. Major cities and townships connected with the Indus civilization have fortified citadels, although the exact details of their superstructure are not known. In most cases they are roughly in the form of a parallelogram or formal oblong with quadrangular bastions at the angles and other important constructional points. It appears that the overall layout of the settlement was mainly based on the plan of the walled enclosures. With a few exceptions the enclosures are built of mud brick of uniform size. Noteworthy Harappa fortifications on the Indian side have been located at KALIBANGAN, SURKOTADA, DESALPUR and BANAWALI. At DESALPUR and SURKOTADA stone is profusely used in the defences as veneer. At KALIBANGAN the citadel and the township complexes are separately built but at other places there is only one massive defensive enclosure with two main walled divisions. At KALIBANGAN the citadel complex is divided into two almost equal-sized rhombs with two entrances. The formal planning of the Harappa fortifications without a moat suggests that primarily these were the outcome of the socio-political practices and economic necessities and their military importance was secondary. ### [v1.c19.s9.3](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c19.s9.3) The association of mud fortification at ERAN (Madhya Pradesh) with a local Chalcolithic culture \[4 14.5\] has not been established beyond doubt. \[See also NAGDA.\] ### [v1.c19.s9.4](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c19.s9.4) The second and more important phase of fortifications commences with the Iron Age developments in the Gaṅgā valley around the middle of the first millennium BC or somewhat earlier. Defensive walls mostly with moats have been located at KAUSĀMBĪ, RĀJGHĀṬ, CAMPĀ, ŚRĀVASTĪ, RĀJGĪR, VAIŚĀLĪ, PĀṬALIPUTRA, MATHURĀ, AHICCHATRĀ, UJJAIN, BESNAGAR, etc. But these fortifications are of different dates. At KAUSĀMBĪ, RĀJGHĀṬ, CAMPĀ and UJJAIN they are of a pre-Mauryan date, but those at many other sites date from post-Mauryan and later times. It is however difficult to date the extensive rubble rampart of RĀJGĪR traditionally believed to be of Bimbisāra's time or even earlier. The fortifications at ŚIŚUPĀLGARH (Orissa) and DHARAṆIKOṬA are post-Mauryan. The citadel at NĀGĀRJUNAKOṆḌA is of the 3rd-4th century. ### [v1.c19.s9.5](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c19.s9.5) With the exception of ŚIŚUPĀLGARH and Sirkap, Taxila, all the fortified settlements were unplanned. At RĀJGĪR and MATHURĀ there were inner protective enclosures. At SANGHOL there is evidence of three moats, the first outside the rampart (\*c.\* 5th century) and the other two inside. ### [v1.c19.s9.6](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c19.s9.6) Mostly of mud, historical fortifications have in some cases partial or full revetment of baked brick, but at ŚIŚUPĀLGARH it is of laterite blocks. However ancient PĀṬALIPUTRA had a fortification made of heavy tenoned wooden posts with nailed cross-beams. Bastions attached to the earlier fort-walls were quadrangular (one at Sirkap, Taxila, being pentagonal) but those of the later times, especially of medieval period, were circular. Traces of semicircular bastions are noticed at a corner of the inner fortification of the Kushan period at MATHURĀ. ### [v1.c19.s9.7](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c19.s9.7) Medieval fortifications many of which had elaborate defensive arrangements are built as fortresses and cities with moats and gateways like LAL-KOT, Delhi, the rock-cut fort at Deogiri, Dt Aurangabad, and the one at Dabhoi, Dt Vadodara, with attractive gates and walls. ### [v1.c19.s9.8](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c19.s9.8) For sites see respective entries in vol. II.—M.C. JOSHI ## Linked texts (15) - [Kālībangan](https://indike.org/pramana/inp.site.kalibangan) - [Banawali](https://indike.org/pramana/inp.site.banawali) - [Surkotada](https://indike.org/pramana/inp.site.surkotada) - [Ahicchatra](https://indike.org/pramana/inp.site.ahichchhatra) - [Kauśāmbī](https://indike.org/pramana/inp.site.kausambi) - [Śrāvastī](https://indike.org/pramana/inp.site.sravasti) - [Vaiśālī](https://indike.org/pramana/inp.site.vaisali) - [Pāṭaliputra](https://indike.org/pramana/inp.site.pataliputra) - [Sisupalgarh](https://indike.org/pramana/inp.site.sisupalgarh) - [Nāgārjunakoṇḍa](https://indike.org/pramana/inp.site.nagarjunakonda) - [Nagda](https://indike.org/pramana/inp.site.nagda) - [Lal-Kot](https://indike.org/pramana/inp.site.lal-kot) - [Dabhoi](https://indike.org/pramana/inp.site.dabhoi) - [Sirkap](https://indike.org/pramana/inp.site.sirkap) - [Rajgiri](https://indike.org/pramana/inp.site.rajgiri) --- Source: [https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c19.s9](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c19.s9) · Pramāṇa