[Pramāṇa](https://indike.org/pramana/) › [Studies](https://indike.org/pramana/ins) › [Reference works](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference) › [An Encyclopaedia of Indian Archaeology](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989) › v1.c21.s17 # An Encyclopaedia of Indian Archaeology v1.c21.s17: 16.17 Transport An Encyclopaedia of Indian Archaeology v1.c21.s17 - **Language:** English ### 16.17 Transport ### [v1.c21.s17.1](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c21.s17.1) The main means of transport on land were vehicles like simple carts, wagons and chariots drawn by men or animals, not to speak of animals like the bullock, horse, camel, etc., while on water boats and sailing ships serve the purpose. Since the vehicles were mainly built of perishable material such as bamboo, wood, tissue, leather, etc., they have not withstood the passage of time. Hence, for lack of actual material evidence archaeological evidence has to be drawn from indirect sources. A large number of miniature or model toy carts, wagons, chariot frames and model boats have been found in excavations which throw light on the various types of vehicles, their techniques of manufacture and use during the Harappa \[4.9\] and early historical \[4.18\] times. These were prepared as toys or as realistic models. Many of them were prepared in copper and bronze showing elaborate detalis; those in terracotta were made on a mass scale. ### [v1.c21.s17.2](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c21.s17.2) \*16.7.1 Models of cart frames.\* The Harappa evidence for cart frames comes from sites such as ALAMGIRPUR, DESALPUR, KALIBANGAN, LOTHAL, ROPAR and SURKOTADA, apart from Mohenjo-daro, Harappa and Chanhu-daro. Mostly of terracotta, they are of three types. The first comprises a solid chassis, either concave or flat. The second and third types have perforated chassis or frame, in addition to a cross bar. On such chassis wooden posts were fixed in vertically pierced holes to from a box-like frame. Wheels were attached to the free projecting ends of the axle which was secured with leather tissue to the main frame, lynch-pins perhaps holding the wheels in position. There are also horizontal holes for the shaft through one end of the frame and the mid cross-piece. With a floor of matting or ropework the open frames of such carts were well adapted for carrying goods and passengers. Carts with detachable cross bars and those with chassis made of two curved bars were used for carrying light goods, mostly in w. India. The second and third types were meant for carrying heavy loads. The first is the forerunner of the modern \*ekka\* presently used in India. ### [v1.c21.s17.3](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c21.s17.3) Elaborate and decorated models of the early historical period in bronze and terracotta have been found. Simple vehicles drawn by a single or a pair of bullocks, horses and rams are in evidence. Others are covered wagons while quite a few represent chariot models. The coverings consisted of materials such as a framework of light bamboo or leather cover. Two types are distinguishable: independent frames of carts and wagons and models prepared from moulds representing details in front. ### [v1.c21.s17.4](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c21.s17.4) The vehicles of the first type are the forerunner of the modern two-wheeled vehicles. Their salient features can be seen in the toy models of copper, bronze and terracotta reported from ATRANJIKHERA, BRAHMAPURI, CAMPĀ, HASTINĀPURA, KAUŚĀMBĪ, MATHURA, RAIRH, RANG MAHAL, SAMBHAR, Charsada and Taxila. ### [v1.c21.s17.5](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c21.s17.5) Copper and bronze models are known from the 3rd century B.C. The vehicles have a transverse hole for the axle underneath the body and another hole for the front pole. The wheels have heavy and clearly defined hubs and fellies. The bronze cart models from RAIRH have a yoke left open at the back and are provided with high sloping and voluted sides; one of them has no yoke but has a clear projection like a mud-guard at the back for passengers to sit. No canopies are found. Some fine models from ATRANJIKHERA, KAUŚĀMBĪ and MATHURA consist of an open vehicle with two wheels, hubs and spokes—a typical specimen of the Ganga valley. It is externally decorated with flower designs in three rows. BRAHMAPURI has produced excellent bronze specimens of Sātavāhana times. Single or a pair of bullocks or horses was yoked to the vehicle. The coverings seem to have been made of thatched bamboo matting or grass (accurate copies are depicted in contemporary sculptures at AMARAVATI and NAGARJUNAKONDA). Taxila has yielded a few types of \*c.\* 100 B.C. to A.D. 200. One is two-wheeled vehicle styled as light racing chariot. Another is a simple dogcart furnished with two holes in the front for shafts and two ground projections underneath for the wheeled axle. Simple carts pulled by one or two animals are known from RANG MAHAL, \*c.\* A.D 300 to 500. Similar ones of the Ikṣvāku times are also found at NAGARJUNAKONDA and YELLESWARAM and are almost identical with their modern successors. ### [v1.c21.s17.6](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c21.s17.6) The second type, having in the front representations of bulls and the vehicle model in a circular frame, is mostly reported from the Ganga valley—at such sites as BANGARH, CHANDRAKETUGARH, KAUŚĀMBĪ, SONPUR, etc. The bulls are sturdy and tall and the actual animals were perhaps meant to carry many passengers and a heavy load. A terracotta plaque with three pairs of men and women from KAUŚĀMBĪ, \*c.\* 300-200 B.C., gives visual evidence as to their use. ### [v1.c21.s17.7](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c21.s17.7) In addition, a number of wheeled toys drawn by animals are also known. Rarely the wheels were mounted on birds and wild animals such as the tiger. They occur at ALAMGIRPUR, \*c.\* 700-600 B.C., NAGDA, RAIRH, Charsada and Taxila (\*c.\* 500B.C. to A.D. 200). ### [v1.c21.s17.8](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c21.s17.8) \*16.7.2 Wheels.\* \[See 16.19.\] ### [v1.c21.s17.9](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c21.s17.9) \*16.7.3 Bridle-bits.\* Bridle-bits have been reported in large numbers from the Megalithic graves \[4.17\] at ADICHANALLUR, KUNNATTUR, JANAMPET, KHAPA, JUNAPANI, etc. In the non-Megalithic context they occur at RAIRH, SAMBHAR and Taxila. The early ones known from the megaliths are of iron and are of three types: simple bits with a rigid mouthpiece; horizontal rigid mouthpieces with looped nosebands and variants; and simple, plain or joined bits and projected snaffles with a ring or cheek-bar on each side. The specimens from RAIRH are made of bronze and the one from SAMBHAR is of iron datable to \*c.\* 200-100 B.C.. Those from Taxila belong to the 1st century A.D.. Cheek-bars known from Taxila only are made of iron, ivory and bone. They are ‘8’-shaped or curved. ### [v1.c21.s17.10](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c21.s17.10) \*16.17.4 Stirrups.\* A pair of iron bars from a megalith \[4.17.6\] at JUNAPANI, each bent double with a curvature and two holes at the ends, perhaps to fasten rein-straps, have been regarded as stirrups but they could as well be a bit (Rivett-Carnac, 1879; Leshnik, 1971). A stirrup of iron, 9 cm in width, is reported from SAMBHAR, but the identification is vague. The bulk of the Megalithic evidence indicates that horse-drawn chariots were in use from \*c.\* 6th century B.C. Their occurrence in Mauryan and later times testify to their more extensive use. ### [v1.c21.s17.11](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c21.s17.11) \*16.17.5 Cart tracts.\* At Harappa have been found wheel-ruts 1 m wide—indicating the gauge between the wheels. At KAUŚĀMBĪ (\*c.\* 300 B.C.-A.D. 100), UJJAIN (\*c.\* 200 B.C.), Sirkap (\*c.\* 1st century A.D.), AMRELI, NAGARJUNAKONDA and RANG MAHAL (\*c.\* A.D. 200–500) cart tracts on roads have been noticed. On a sheet of bed rock in a locality at RAJGIR there is a pair of wheel ruts about 1·40 m apart from each other, indicating the gauge. The period is uncertain. ### [v1.c21.s17.12](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c21.s17.12) \*16.17.6 Boats and ships.\* Terracotta models from LOTHAL indicate two types of boats. A complete model consists of a sharp keel, pointed prow and high flat stern and has three blind holes, two of which are for fixing masts and securing ropes of the sail and the third for supporting an oar. One of the broken models has no provision for the mast; it evidently represents a country craft used in local creeks and rivers, whereas the first type is meant for the high seas. ### [v1.c21.s17.13](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c21.s17.13) Five stone anchors, of which three come from the base of the LOTHAL dock, are perforated to pass a rope through. In two of them there are blind holes for fixing wooden sticks to act as hooks. ### [v1.c21.s17.14](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c21.s17.14) Though no material evidence of sea vessels is available, ceramics, terracottas, coins, bullae, etc., have been obtained from many sites of c. w. and s. India and the n. Deccan indicating the flourishing maritime trade between the w. and the e. sea-board and the Graeco-Roman world in the early centuries of the Christian era. \[A toy boat made of a scooped-out log of wood was found at ARIKAMEDU.\] ### [v1.c21.s17.15](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c21.s17.15) A unique terracotta boat prepared \*in situ\* is the only object of its kind excavated at AMBARI. It is 2·95 m long, 85 cm high and 12 cm thick at the edge. It has an oblong projecting prow, similar stern and flat base, its exterior being rough but the interior smoothened. It was laid in a pit large enough to hold it. It has been assigned to the period of \*c.\* 700-1200. It has been suggested that it enshrined the mortal remains of an individual—a rare instance of its kind. Boats of an identical shape ply even now on the Brahmaputra. ### [v1.c21.s17.16](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c21.s17.16) Dhavalikar, M.K., 1970-2, in \*Bull Deccan College Res. Inst.\*, 31, 1-2, pp. 137-45 (for Ambari). Ghosh, A., 1975, \*Rajgir\*, New Delhi, p. 34 (for wheel-ruts at Rajgir). Leshnik, 1971, In \*American Jour. of Arch.\*, 72, 2, pp. 147-8 (for stirrup from Junapani). Margabandhu, C., in Agrawal, D.P., & Ghosh, A., ed., 1973, \*Radiocarbon & Indian Arch.\*, Bombay, pp. 182-9 (for technology of transport vehicles). Rivett-Carnac, J.H., 1879, in \*Jour. Asiatic Soc. Bengal\*, 48 (for stirrup from Junapani). For sites see respective entries in vol. II.—C. MARGABANDHU ## Linked texts (23) - [Harappā](https://indike.org/pramana/inp.site.harappa) - [Mohenjo-daro](https://indike.org/pramana/inp.site.mohenjo-daro) - [Lothal](https://indike.org/pramana/inp.site.lothal) - [Kālībangan](https://indike.org/pramana/inp.site.kalibangan) - [Chanhu-daro](https://indike.org/pramana/inp.site.chanhu-daro) - [Surkotada](https://indike.org/pramana/inp.site.surkotada) - [Alamgirpur](https://indike.org/pramana/inp.site.alamgirpur) - [Hastināpura](https://indike.org/pramana/inp.site.hastinapura) - [Kauśāmbī](https://indike.org/pramana/inp.site.kausambi) - [Atranjikhera](https://indike.org/pramana/inp.site.atranjikhera) - [Chandraketugarh](https://indike.org/pramana/inp.site.chandraketugarh) - [Nāgārjunakoṇḍa](https://indike.org/pramana/inp.site.nagarjunakonda) - [Ādichanallūr](https://indike.org/pramana/inp.site.adichanallur) - [Nagda](https://indike.org/pramana/inp.site.nagda) - [Kunnattur](https://indike.org/pramana/inp.site.kunnattur) - [Sonpur](https://indike.org/pramana/inp.site.sonpur) - [Khapa](https://indike.org/pramana/inp.site.khapa) - [Ambari](https://indike.org/pramana/inp.site.ambari) - [Janampet](https://indike.org/pramana/inp.site.janampet) - [Sirkap](https://indike.org/pramana/inp.site.sirkap) - [Rajgiri](https://indike.org/pramana/inp.site.rajgiri) - [Sambhar](https://indike.org/pramana/inp.site.sambhar) - [Brahmapuri](https://indike.org/pramana/inp.site.brahmapuri) --- Source: [https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c21.s17](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c21.s17) · Pramāṇa