[Pramāṇa](https://indike.org/pramana/) › [Studies](https://indike.org/pramana/ins) › [Reference works](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference) › [An Encyclopaedia of Indian Archaeology](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989) › v1.c21.s1 # An Encyclopaedia of Indian Archaeology v1.c21.s1: 16.1 Agriculture and Irrigation An Encyclopaedia of Indian Archaeology v1.c21.s1 - **Language:** English ### 16.1 Agriculture and Irrigation ### [v1.c21.s1.1](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c21.s1.1) The significance of agriculture and irrigation to archaeological studies was first emphasized by Childe, 1942, at the level of generalizations. He described the introduction of agriculture in Neolithic societies as being in the nature of a revolutionary change, moving from subsistence agriculture at the initial stage to self-sufficiency and a food-producing economy at a further stage. Since Childe first discussed this change a considerable quantum of archaeological data has been collected and fresh interpretations offered on the role of agriculture at various stages of social change as well as on the correlation of agricultural technology to social formations, as is evident from a number of recent studies, e.g. Streuver. 1971. ### [v1.c21.s1.2](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c21.s1.2) Evidence of agricultural products comes from four basic areas of the subcontinent together with their extensions: ### [v1.c21.s1.3](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c21.s1.3) (1) Baluchistan and the Indus valley where the earliest remains date to the mid-4th millennium and continue in some areas until the 1st millennium B.C., moving from a Neolithic to a Chalcolithic and Copper/Bronze Age \[4.7\] economy. This area has produced remains of club wheat (\*Triticum compactum\*) from Mundigak II and Harappa and dwarf wheat (\*T. spaerococcum\*), barley (\*Hordeum vulgare\*), dates, sesame and legumes from Harappa. For some of these w. Asian origins have been suggested. Cotton (\*Gossypium arboreum\*) has been found at Mohenjo-daro. ### [v1.c21.s1.4](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c21.s1.4) (2) W. India and the n. Deccan, again of the Neolithic, Copper/Bronze and Chalcolithic \[4.14\] phases. Rice husks have been found at LOTHAL and RANGPUR II A. Wheat and later on rice were located at NAVDATOLI and SONGAON together with lentils (\*Lens culinaris\*), black gram (\*Phaseolus mungo\*), green gram (\*Phaseolus radiatus\*), linseed, jujube and myrobalan. Cotton and flax are also associated with the n.-w. Deccan and silk is reported from NAVDATOLI \[16.16\]. ### [v1.c21.s1.5](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c21.s1.5) (3) The Ganga valley, where the evidence dates to the 1st millennium B.C. with wheat and rice in the upper valley and rice alone in the lower beyond the Ganga-Yamuna confluence. Rice has been found at HASTINĀPURA (husks), NOH, SONPUR I B and MAHISDAL. \[See KOLDIHWA.\] ### [v1.c21.s1.6](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c21.s1.6) (4) The s. Deccan, with evidence of horse gram (\*Dolichus biflorus\*) at TEKKALAKOTA I, green gram at PAIYAMPALLI and \*ragi\* (a millet—\*Eleusine coracana\*) at HALLUR. The last has been associated with possible African origins. Pulses and oilseeds in addition to millets have also been found at sites such as MASKI, PIKLIHAL, UTNUR, SANGANAKALLU and BRAHMAGIRI in the 2nd millennium B.C. The 1st millennium B.C. has evidence of rice associated with Megalithic sites. Burnt rice husks were found at Daba Kadattur. ### [v1.c21.s1.7](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c21.s1.7) \[For a detailed treatment sec 2.\] ### [v1.c21.s1.8](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c21.s1.8) A large range of agricultural implements has been excavated. Digging-stick weights are believed to have been found in the Bankura and Midnapur region and at BANAHALLI, Dt Kolar. Shouldered stone hoes again come from sites in W. Bengal. It has been suggested that sickles made from hafting microliths on to wood can be assumed from the microlithic evidence from c. and e. India and the n. Deccan. BURZAHOM has produced a curious stone implement, straight-edged on the side and crescent-shaped on the other, with striation marks suggestive of its probable use as a sickle. Similar implements from C. Asia have been quoted for comparison. The area under cultivation at Neolithic sites was probably small judging by an estimate of three to four hectares at SINGANAPALLI. ### [v1.c21.s1.9](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c21.s1.9) Evidence of plough agriculture in n. Rajasthan is apparent from the furrowed field discovered at KALIBANGAN and dating to the pre-Harappa levels. Iron implements used in agriculture consisting in the main of hoes, crescent-shaped sickles, leaf-shaped sickles, billhooks and spades, have been found in fairly large numbers from Megalithic sites. Iron hoes have also been found in the PGW levels at ATRANJIKHERA. Whether iron celts were used as ploughshares is debatable. A longitudinal ploughshare of iron has been found in the excavation at SARADKEL. The site at BANAHALLI provides an interesting sequence from digging-stick weights to hoes, scythes and grinders of the Megalithic period. ### [v1.c21.s1.10](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c21.s1.10) Given the ecological variation and geomorphology of the subcontinent the variety in irrigation techniques is, not unexpectedly, large. The Baluchistan area seems to have used a system of \*gabarbands\*, the channelizing of water and silt from hill streams on to large semiterraced areas. For the Indus valley and the Sind plains in particular it has been suggested that river inundations were used. The spill from the river or its channels flooded the banks and surrounds. The crop was sown at the start of the inundation and harvested with the subsiding of the water. Possibly the fields alongside the river were embanked. There is however so far no archaeological evidence to support this idea, feasible as it may sound. In w. India bunds, or earthworks, were constructed for minor irrigation; an example of this can be seen in the vicinity of DEVNIMORI. Terrace agriculture appears to have been more common in the Deccan. In Megalithic times there is evidence of catchment areas serving as tanks which perhaps developed into the building of earthworks and bunds to enclose tanks. Tank irrigation predominates in historical times in s. India with, to a lesser extent, canal irrigation \[cf. 4.14\]. At Vanagiri near KĀVERĪPATTINAM there is evidence of a sluice with rounded walls to control the supply of water. In the Ganga valley wells are likely to have been main sources of irrigation, giving way to tanks in the e. areas. The major technological innovation related to well-irrigation was the use of the Persian wheen which became current in the later half of the 1st millennium A.D. Literary sources also refer to the use of river channels and their damming. Perhaps the most significant irrigation work of early historical times for which archaeological identification has been suggested is the dam on the lake Sudarśana near Junagadh, originally constructed during the reign of Chandragupta Maurya and subsequently repaired at various intervals. The canal said to have been built by the Nanda kings and referred to in the Hathigumpha. \[UDAYAGIRI-KHANDAGIRI inscription of Khāravela has yet to be identified.\] ### [v1.c21.s1.11](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c21.s1.11) This significance of irrigation has been highlighted in the argument that irrigated rice agriculture both in the Ganga valley and in the s. peninsula not only enforced plough agriculture but was also the basis of dense populations which could support monarchical system and urban centres. A related discussion centres on the question of whether population pressures led to agricultural innovation or vice versa. The correlation between the method of food-production and urban centres is by now well established. What still remains controversial is the link between state systems and the control of the hydraulic machinery. ### [v1.c21.s1.12](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c21.s1.12) Allchin, B. & R., 1968, \*Birth of Indian Civilization\*, Harmondsworth. Childe, V.G., 1942, \*What Happened in History\*, Harmondsworth. Kosambi, D.D., 1954, \*Introduction to the Study of Indian Hist.\*, Bombay. Maloney, C., in B. Stein (ed.), 1976, \*Essays on s. India\*, New Delhi, pp. 1-40 (for arch. of s. India). Mehta, R.N., 1968, in \*Jour. Oriental Inst.\*, 18, pp. 20-7 (for Sudarśana lake). Sankalia, H.D., 1974, \*Prehistory & Protohistory of India & Pakistan\*, Poona. Spooner, B., ed., 1972, \*Population Growth\*, Cambridge (Mass.). Struever, S., ed., 1971, \*Prehistoric Agriculture\*, New York. For sites see respective entries in vol. II.—R. THAPAR ## Linked texts (22) - [Harappā](https://indike.org/pramana/inp.site.harappa) - [Mohenjo-daro](https://indike.org/pramana/inp.site.mohenjo-daro) - [Lothal](https://indike.org/pramana/inp.site.lothal) - [Kālībangan](https://indike.org/pramana/inp.site.kalibangan) - [Rangpur](https://indike.org/pramana/inp.site.rangpur) - [Mundigak](https://indike.org/pramana/inp.site.mundigak) - [Hastināpura](https://indike.org/pramana/inp.site.hastinapura) - [Atranjikhera](https://indike.org/pramana/inp.site.atranjikhera) - [Maski](https://indike.org/pramana/inp.site.maski) - [Burzahom](https://indike.org/pramana/inp.site.burzahom) - [Navdatoli](https://indike.org/pramana/inp.site.navdatoli) - [Sanganakallu](https://indike.org/pramana/inp.site.sanganakallu) - [Sonpur](https://indike.org/pramana/inp.site.sonpur) - [Devnimori](https://indike.org/pramana/inp.site.devnimori) - [Tekkalakota](https://indike.org/pramana/inp.site.tekkalakota) - [Noh](https://indike.org/pramana/inp.site.noh) - [Mahisdal](https://indike.org/pramana/inp.site.mahisdal) - [Saradkel](https://indike.org/pramana/inp.site.saradkel) - [Paiyampalli](https://indike.org/pramana/inp.site.paiyampalli) - [Singanapalli](https://indike.org/pramana/inp.site.singanapalli) - [Banahalli](https://indike.org/pramana/inp.site.banahalli) - [Junâgaḍh](https://indike.org/pramana/inp.site.junagadh) --- Source: [https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c21.s1](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c21.s1) · Pramāṇa