[Pramāṇa](https://indike.org/pramana/) › [Studies](https://indike.org/pramana/ins) › [Reference works](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference) › [An Encyclopaedia of Indian Archaeology](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989) › v1.c21 # An Encyclopaedia of Indian Archaeology v1.c21: 16 Technology An Encyclopaedia of Indian Archaeology v1.c21 - **Language:** English ## Contents - [v1.c21.s1 16.1 Agriculture and Irrigation](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c21.s1) — 12 parts - [v1.c21.s2 16.2 Burnishers](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c21.s2) — 4 parts - [v1.c21.s3 16.3 Coins](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c21.s3) — 1 part - [v1.c21.s4 16.4 Crucibles](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c21.s4) — 4 parts - [v1.c21.s5 16.5 Dies](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c21.s5) — 3 parts - [v1.c21.s6 16.6 Faience](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c21.s6) — 6 parts - [v1.c21.s7 16.7 Furnaces](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c21.s7) — 5 parts - [v1.c21.s8 16.8 Glass](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c21.s8) — 26 parts - [v1.c21.s9 16.9 Metals](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c21.s9) — 25 parts - [v1.c21.s10 16.10 Moulds](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c21.s10) — 3 parts - [v1.c21.s11 16.11 Potters’ Dabbers](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c21.s11) — 4 parts - [v1.c21.s12 16.12 Pottery Kilns](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c21.s12) — 9 parts - [v1.c21.s13 16.13 Spindle Whorls](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c21.s13) — 1 part - [v1.c21.s14 16.14 Steatite](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c21.s14) — 6 parts - [v1.c21.s15 16.15 Stone Tools](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c21.s15) — 17 parts - [v1.c21.s16 16.16 Textiles](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c21.s16) — 13 parts - [v1.c21.s17 16.17 Transport](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c21.s17) — 16 parts - [v1.c21.s18 16.18 Whetstones](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c21.s18) — 3 parts - [v1.c21.s19 16.19 Wheels](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c21.s19) — 4 parts ### 16 Technology ### 16.1 Agriculture and Irrigation ### [v1.c21.s1.1](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c21.s1.1) The significance of agriculture and irrigation to archaeological studies was first emphasized by Childe, 1942, at the level of generalizations. He described the introduction of agriculture in Neolithic societies as being in the nature of a revolutionary change, moving from subsistence agriculture at the initial stage to self-sufficiency and a food-producing economy at a further stage. Since Childe first discussed this change a considerable quantum of archaeological data has been collected and fresh interpretations offered on the role of agriculture at various stages of social change as well as on the correlation of agricultural technology to social formations, as is evident from a number of recent studies, e.g. Streuver. 1971. ### [v1.c21.s1.2](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c21.s1.2) Evidence of agricultural products comes from four basic areas of the subcontinent together with their extensions: ### [v1.c21.s1.3](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c21.s1.3) (1) Baluchistan and the Indus valley where the earliest remains date to the mid-4th millennium and continue in some areas until the 1st millennium B.C., moving from a Neolithic to a Chalcolithic and Copper/Bronze Age \[4.7\] economy. This area has produced remains of club wheat (\*Triticum compactum\*) from Mundigak II and Harappa and dwarf wheat (\*T. spaerococcum\*), barley (\*Hordeum vulgare\*), dates, sesame and legumes from Harappa. For some of these w. Asian origins have been suggested. Cotton (\*Gossypium arboreum\*) has been found at Mohenjo-daro. ### [v1.c21.s1.4](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c21.s1.4) (2) W. India and the n. Deccan, again of the Neolithic, Copper/Bronze and Chalcolithic \[4.14\] phases. Rice husks have been found at LOTHAL and RANGPUR II A. Wheat and later on rice were located at NAVDATOLI and SONGAON together with lentils (\*Lens culinaris\*), black gram (\*Phaseolus mungo\*), green gram (\*Phaseolus radiatus\*), linseed, jujube and myrobalan. Cotton and flax are also associated with the n.-w. Deccan and silk is reported from NAVDATOLI \[16.16\]. ### [v1.c21.s1.5](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c21.s1.5) (3) The Ganga valley, where the evidence dates to the 1st millennium B.C. with wheat and rice in the upper valley and rice alone in the lower beyond the Ganga-Yamuna confluence. Rice has been found at HASTINĀPURA (husks), NOH, SONPUR I B and MAHISDAL. \[See KOLDIHWA.\] ### [v1.c21.s1.6](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c21.s1.6) (4) The s. Deccan, with evidence of horse gram (\*Dolichus biflorus\*) at TEKKALAKOTA I, green gram at PAIYAMPALLI and \*ragi\* (a millet—\*Eleusine coracana\*) at HALLUR. The last has been associated with possible African origins. Pulses and oilseeds in addition to millets have also been found at sites such as MASKI, PIKLIHAL, UTNUR, SANGANAKALLU and BRAHMAGIRI in the 2nd millennium B.C. The 1st millennium B.C. has evidence of rice associated with Megalithic sites. Burnt rice husks were found at Daba Kadattur. ### [v1.c21.s1.7](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c21.s1.7) \[For a detailed treatment sec 2.\] ### [v1.c21.s1.8](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c21.s1.8) A large range of agricultural implements has been excavated. Digging-stick weights are believed to have been found in the Bankura and Midnapur region and at BANAHALLI, Dt Kolar. Shouldered stone hoes again come from sites in W. Bengal. It has been suggested that sickles made from hafting microliths on to wood can be assumed from the microlithic evidence from c. and e. India and the n. Deccan. BURZAHOM has produced a curious stone implement, straight-edged on the side and crescent-shaped on the other, with striation marks suggestive of its probable use as a sickle. Similar implements from C. Asia have been quoted for comparison. The area under cultivation at Neolithic sites was probably small judging by an estimate of three to four hectares at SINGANAPALLI. ### [v1.c21.s1.9](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c21.s1.9) Evidence of plough agriculture in n. Rajasthan is apparent from the furrowed field discovered at KALIBANGAN and dating to the pre-Harappa levels. Iron implements used in agriculture consisting in the main of hoes, crescent-shaped sickles, leaf-shaped sickles, billhooks and spades, have been found in fairly large numbers from Megalithic sites. Iron hoes have also been found in the PGW levels at ATRANJIKHERA. Whether iron celts were used as ploughshares is debatable. A longitudinal ploughshare of iron has been found in the excavation at SARADKEL. The site at BANAHALLI provides an interesting sequence from digging-stick weights to hoes, scythes and grinders of the Megalithic period. ### [v1.c21.s1.10](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c21.s1.10) Given the ecological variation and geomorphology of the subcontinent the variety in irrigation techniques is, not unexpectedly, large. The Baluchistan area seems to have used a system of \*gabarbands\*, the channelizing of water and silt from hill streams on to large semiterraced areas. For the Indus valley and the Sind plains in particular it has been suggested that river inundations were used. The spill from the river or its channels flooded the banks and surrounds. The crop was sown at the start of the inundation and harvested with the subsiding of the water. Possibly the fields alongside the river were embanked. There is however so far no archaeological evidence to support this idea, feasible as it may sound. In w. India bunds, or earthworks, were constructed for minor irrigation; an example of this can be seen in the vicinity of DEVNIMORI. Terrace agriculture appears to have been more common in the Deccan. In Megalithic times there is evidence of catchment areas serving as tanks which perhaps developed into the building of earthworks and bunds to enclose tanks. Tank irrigation predominates in historical times in s. India with, to a lesser extent, canal irrigation \[cf. 4.14\]. At Vanagiri near KĀVERĪPATTINAM there is evidence of a sluice with rounded walls to control the supply of water. In the Ganga valley wells are likely to have been main sources of irrigation, giving way to tanks in the e. areas. The major technological innovation related to well-irrigation was the use of the Persian wheen which became current in the later half of the 1st millennium A.D. Literary sources also refer to the use of river channels and their damming. Perhaps the most significant irrigation work of early historical times for which archaeological identification has been suggested is the dam on the lake Sudarśana near Junagadh, originally constructed during the reign of Chandragupta Maurya and subsequently repaired at various intervals. The canal said to have been built by the Nanda kings and referred to in the Hathigumpha. \[UDAYAGIRI-KHANDAGIRI inscription of Khāravela has yet to be identified.\] ### [v1.c21.s1.11](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c21.s1.11) This significance of irrigation has been highlighted in the argument that irrigated rice agriculture both in the Ganga valley and in the s. peninsula not only enforced plough agriculture but was also the basis of dense populations which could support monarchical system and urban centres. A related discussion centres on the question of whether population pressures led to agricultural innovation or vice versa. The correlation between the method of food-production and urban centres is by now well established. What still remains controversial is the link between state systems and the control of the hydraulic machinery. ### [v1.c21.s1.12](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c21.s1.12) Allchin, B. & R., 1968, \*Birth of Indian Civilization\*, Harmondsworth. Childe, V.G., 1942, \*What Happened in History\*, Harmondsworth. Kosambi, D.D., 1954, \*Introduction to the Study of Indian Hist.\*, Bombay. Maloney, C., in B. Stein (ed.), 1976, \*Essays on s. India\*, New Delhi, pp. 1-40 (for arch. of s. India). Mehta, R.N., 1968, in \*Jour. Oriental Inst.\*, 18, pp. 20-7 (for Sudarśana lake). Sankalia, H.D., 1974, \*Prehistory & Protohistory of India & Pakistan\*, Poona. Spooner, B., ed., 1972, \*Population Growth\*, Cambridge (Mass.). Struever, S., ed., 1971, \*Prehistoric Agriculture\*, New York. For sites see respective entries in vol. II.—R. THAPAR ### 16.2 Burnishers ### [v1.c21.s2.1](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c21.s2.1) Burnishers are smooth-surfaced instruments of pebble. bone, wood or terracotta used for polishing the surface of objects like those of metal, clay vessels, stone artefacts, house floors and walls. Burnishing make clay objects less porous, besides giving them a smooth surface; this is done while the clay is leather-hard. ### [v1.c21.s2.2](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c21.s2.2) Two types of burnishing patterns have been noticed—plain burnish and stroke burnish. In the former the surface is left matt as a background to the design of polished lines. In stroke burnish the surface is completely burnished but the marks of the burnishers remains distinct. The technique is found also employed on gold objects in Harappa times. ### [v1.c21.s2.3](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c21.s2.3) On the Indian side the technique is found employed on the Harappa \[11.3\] pottery of LOTHAL and KALIBANGAN and the Neolithic \[11.1\] pottery of BURZAHOM, CHIRAND and PIKLIHAL. Burnished pottery also occurs in the Chalcolithic \[4.14\] levels at GILUND and INAMGAON. The tradition continued during the early Iron Age in the context of the Megalithic grave pottery \[11.15\] found at BUDDITITTU and the early NBPW \[11.16\] levels of MAHESHWAR. ### [v1.c21.s2.4](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c21.s2.4) For sites see respective entries in vol. II.—R.P. SHARMA ### 16.3 Coins ### [v1.c21.s3.1](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c21.s3.1) For coin-manufacturing technology see 3.1. ### 16.4 Crucibles ### [v1.c21.s4.1](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c21.s4.1) The crucible is a heart-resistant container used for smelting and making glass as also for converting wrought iron into wootz steel in the crucible process. Specimens have been reported from a number of sites right from the Harappa period, though there hasbeen no specialized study on them. Thick-walled, they include conical, cylindrical, oval, cup-shaped, squat and broad forms, their heights ranging from 24 to 164 mm and maximum diameters from 24 to 57 mm. Their surfaces are often vitrified and enamelled, evidencing their use in smelting operations. Some have metalliferous and glassy residues sticking to them. Metallic crucibles are also known; an iron specimen datable to the 3rd century B.C. has been reported from SAMBHAR. ### [v1.c21.s4.2](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c21.s4.2) While crucibles ahve been reported from many sites, details are available of the following: LOTHAL, Harappa \[4.9\]: height 164 mm, diameter 56 mm, fair-sized, deep, from the so-called industrial area; AHAR², Pd I B, Chalcolithic \[4.14.1\]: height 77 mm, diameter 48 mm; INAMGAON, Chalcolithic \[4.14.6\]: height 75 mm, diameter 35 mm; NASIK, Pd II A, early historical: height 43 mm, diameter 31 mm; NEVASA, Pds IV, V and VI, early historical: three intact specimens, maximum height 130 mm and maximum diameter 57 mm; SHAMALAJI, early historical: a large number, maximum height 112 mm, and a tuyre measuring 133 × 57 mm; and MAHESHWAR, early historical: height 24 mm, diameter 42 mm, a shallow specimen. ### [v1.c21.s4.3](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c21.s4.3) In addition crucibles are reported from LAL QILA, OCW \[4.12\], TAKALGHAT, Megalithic \[4.17.8\], UJJAIN, Pd II, where a large number of specimens along with contraptions for blowing air have been noticed, NAGARJUNAKONDA, \*c.\* A.D. 300, DEVNIMORI, A.D. 400, Kanheri, A.D. 500, etc. ### [v1.c21.s4.4](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c21.s4.4) For sites see respective entries in vol. II.—H.C. BHARDWAJ ### 16.5 Dies ### [v1.c21.s5.1](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c21.s5.1) A large number of Harappa seal-dies and a few of the historical period have come to light. Seal-dies were pressed against moist clay to make impressions. Metal seals were generally cast, though a few could be made by the technique followed in die-struck coins. ### [v1.c21.s5.2](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c21.s5.2) In making die-struck coins usually two dies were used \[3.11\]. A metal piece of the required size was sandwiched between the lower and upper die. A hammer stroke on the upper die impressed the designs on the metal piece. A bronze die from ERAN of \*c.\* 300 B.C. is the only extant specimen of ancient Indian coin-dies. ### [v1.c21.s5.3](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c21.s5.3) For site see respective entry in vol. II—K.K. THAPLYAL ### 16.6 Faience ### [v1.c21.s6.1](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c21.s6.1) Faïence (French, from Faenza in Italy) is a highly siliceous, granular, artifical material. Used in France for decorative earthenware, as distinct from tableware, during the 16th to 18th centuries, the term has come to be adopted for the material of highly siliceous, enamelled and decorated archaeological objects of coarse fabric found in pre-Harappa \[4.8\], Harappa \[=√ \] and later times mainly for the manufacture of beads and bangles. ### [v1.c21.s6.2](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c21.s6.2) The body of the objects has a coarse granulated texture with angular grains of quartz embedded in a clear matrix. Their physical parameters show that they have a concoidal fracture and a greasy lustre, with a hardness of 6 to 7 and a specific gravity of about 2·8. Traces of glaze and enamel (opaque glaze) are sometimes seen on the surface. They have different colours-white, green, greenish-white and bluish-green with green and blue glaze. There is a very high percentage of silica (above 80%), a small quantity of lime and a very low proportion of alkalies, with oxides of copper and iron used as tinctorial agents. The raw material is generally curshed quartz or very fine angular quartz sand. It seems that powdered silica or quartz sand was mixed with a little lime, moulded into shape and fired at a high temperature, when the fusible fluxes (lime, oxides of iron and copper and alkalies) flowed through the sand grains and embedded in a clear matrix. Some objects are decorated with a soda-lime glaze of green or blue colour. They body material was also sometimes coloured. Microscopic examination shows that the objects were sometimes finished smooth with a sharp instrument, as evidenced by regularly oriented striations and scratches on the surface. ### [v1.c21.s6.3](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c21.s6.3) Some of the more significant early sites yielding faïence objects, mostly beads, bangles and other ornaments are: KALIBANGAN, both pre-Harappa and Harappa levels; Mohenjo-daro, Harappa, ROPAR, LOTHAL, DESALPUR, ROJDI, CHANDIGARH, SURKOTADA, DAULATPUR and ALAMGIRPUR, all Harappa; SANGHOL, late Harappa; and AHAR², NAVDATOLI, NEVASA, all Chalcolithic \[4.14\]. ### [v1.c21.s6.4](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c21.s6.4) The analysis of objects from Mohenjo-daro (fragment of an object, light blue in colour, with holes and cavities in section) and from Harappa (fragment of a thick bangle, light blue in colour, close and compact structure with many blow-holes and cavities) yields the following results respectively: SiO₂—88·00, 86.00; Fe₂O₃—1·60, 1·60; Al₂O₃—4·07, 4·20; CaO—1·80, 2·60; MgO—1·53, 1·20; CuO—1·66, 1·80; alkalies—1·34, 2·60; total in both cases—100·00. ### [v1.c21.s6.5](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c21.s6.5) A comparative analysis of faïence objects from a few sites of the Harappa culture and of the early historical RANG MAHAL culture \[4.18.2\] in the SARASVATI VALLEY shows no material difference in their composition in spite of the enormous chronological gap: Harappa—BAROR (fragment of a thick bangle, pale blue colour with holes and cavities in section, blow-holes and specks of blue glaze on surface) and CHAK 75 (fragment of a bangle with practically the same physical features as the preceding): respectively SiO₂—85·34, 84·32; Fe₂O₃—1·99, 1·43; Al₂O₃—3·77, 4·98; CaO—1·95, 1·70; MgO—0·80, 1·05; CuO—1·56 and 1·96; alkalies—4·59, 4·56; total in both cases—100·00. Two specimens (both fragments of bangles, light-blue in colour, with cavities and holes in section and specks of green glaze) from BHAGWANSAR-1, a Rang Mahal site, have the following compositions: SiO—86·45, 86·84; Fe₂O₃—1·47, 1·31; Al₂O₃—4·45, 4·42; CaO—1·74, 1·91; MgO—0·60, 0·49; CuO—1·60, 1·71; alkalies—3·69, 3·31; total in both cases—100·00. ### [v1.c21.s6.6](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c21.s6.6) For sites see respective entries in vol. II.—B.B. LAL (Dr) ### 16.7 Furnaces ### [v1.c21.s7.1](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c21.s7.1) So far neither in exploration nor in excavation has any furnace been found which can be said to have been used for smelting metal during the Chalcolithic period \[4.14\]. But copper 'bun' ingots have been found at the Harappa \[4.9\] site of LOTHAL and a number of copper and bronze objects have been recovered from excavations at all Harappa sites and many a Chalcolithic site. A number of these objects from sites in Punjab, Rajasthan, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh and Maharashtra have been subjected to detailed metallurgical analysis. AHAR² yielded within the strata of the Chalcolithic period copper objects along with slag \[16.9.4\]—a waste product of the coppersmelting industry. \[For a Megalithic, 4.17.6, furnace see NAIKUND.\] Analysis of the slag throws useful light on the ancient Indian copper-smelting and metal-working technology. ### [v1.c21.s7.2](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c21.s7.2) Fig. 52. Furnace (pottery kiln from Mohenjo-daro) ### [v1.c21.s7.3](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c21.s7.3) While 1200°C is adequate for the smelting of copper it is inadequate for the effective smelting of iron, which requires a temperature of 1535°C and a strong reducing environment. It appears that in ancient Indian metallurgy the same type of furnace that was used for smelting copper was also used for smelting iron in which the slag was tapped. Remains of such type of furnace with evidence of their use for smelting both copper and iron metals have recently been discovered at Kumbhariya, a village near Ambaji in n. Gujarat. This large metalworking site has been dated to the 10th-11th century A.D. These furnaces are all broken at the bottom. They have slag adhering inside them. Analysis of this slag shows that some of them were used for smelting copper and the others for smelting iron. They are small in size, shaped like a crucible and made of clay. They are all forced-draught, slag-tapping furnaces. The diameter near their mouth varies from 15 to 20 cm, the thickness of their clay wall from 3 to 4 cm and the diameter of their tuyere from 4 to 5 cm. ### [v1.c21.s7.4](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c21.s7.4) The use of this type of small, crucible-shaped, clay-lined, forced-draught furnace, which probably began in the Chalcolithic period in India, has continued to the present day. \[For furnaces of the historical period see UJJAIN, NĀLANDĀ.\] Many metal-working tribes like the Loharia and Agaria use it for smelting iron. They charge the furnace with crushed haematite and charcoal (2 to 3 cm cube), which they push into the furnace in small quantities at a time from the top as required according to the colour of the flame. About 20 kg of ore and 20 kg of charcoal are added in about four hours and finally topped with excess charcoal. When the charge is smelted the flame becomes luminous; the bellows are stopped and the slag outlet opened. A spongy bloom of wrought iron, about 1 kg in weight, is formed at the bottom of the furnace. It is taken out by breaking the furnace. It is repeatedly heated to redness in an open hearth and forged on an anvil in front of the hearth to separate out the adhering slag. Simultaneously the surface of the metal is carburized and case-hardened. It is further forged to shape the metal into desired objects. ### [v1.c21.s7.5](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c21.s7.5) Elwin, V., 1942, \*Agaria\*, Calcutta. Hegde, K.T.M., 1965, "Chalcolithic Period Copper Metallurgy in India", unpublished thesis, Baroda; 1965, in \*Excavations at Ahar\*, Poona; 1973, in \*Man\*, 8, 3, pp. 416-21. Mehta, R.N., 1969, in \*Swadhyaya\*, 5, 2, pp. 31-5 (for Kumbhariya). Tylecote, R. F., 1965, in \*Jour. Iron & Steel Inst.\* 669, pp. 340-8.—K.T M. HEGDE ### 16.8 Glass ### [v1.c21.s8.1](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c21.s8.1) Objects of glass have been found in association with the PGW \[11.14\] at AHICCHATRĀ, HASTINĀPURA, ROPAR, ALAMGIRPUR and ŚRĀVASTĪ, the objects being respectively: a black opaque bead; a bead and two fragments of light brown and black bangles; a bangle; beads; and green bangles and beads. The Chalcolithic \[4.14.8\] levels of MASKI have yielded four beads including one of blue opaque glass. ### [v1.c21.s8.2](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c21.s8.2) Glass objects are prolific in later times, including the Megalithic \[4.17\], e.g. MASKI. They mostly consist of beads, bangles of round, triangular or rectangular sections, bracelets, finger rings, discs and occasionally vessels (including Roman ones from ARIKAMEDU), cylindrical weights and discs. Of technological interest are the bichrome and polychrome objects found in the late historical period, gold-foiled objects with one colour in the core and another at the exterior, objects produced of cane glass and moulded glass and glass frit (e.g. at AHICCHATRĀ). Polychrome specimens show a remarkable skill in glass-moulding and annealing. ### [v1.c21.s8.3](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c21.s8.3) Our knowledge of the nature and composition of Indian glass is based on the chemical analysis of some 60 specimens. The more significant of them are as follows. ### [v1.c21.s8.4](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c21.s8.4) HASTINĀPURA, PGW level, two specimens: the first, a brownish bangle, an ordinary soda-lime silicate containing some oxide of iron accounting for its colour, with a low alumina and silica content and being soft suitable for bangle-making; and the second a black glass bangle, also of soda-lime silicate, with a low proportion of silica and alumina, therefore soft and easy to work, the black colour being due to the presence of iron oxide. After fabrication the objects were probably subjected to careful annealing. When excavated the objects were fresh and free from decomposition and devitrification. The specific gravity lies between 2·55 and 2·6; the hardness is about 6. ### [v1.c21.s8.5](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c21.s8.5) RAJGHAT⁴, five specimens, all early historical: RG1, opaque reddish-brown bead; RG2, translucent pale blue bead; RG3, transparent olive-green bead; RG4, translucent bluish-green bead; and RG5, translucent black bead. Four specimens represent soda-lime silicates and the fifth soda-potash-lime silicate. The sesquioxides amount to about 12% in three specimens, while the other two contain only 4·6%. Lime-magnesia concentration ranges between 4·51 and 6·79% in three specimens and 9·02 to 10·00% in the other two. The specimens with low sesquioxides are found to contain a high lime-magnesia content; thus where the former is high the latter is low. The tinctorial agents are oxides of iron and copper; the colouring agent of the opaque red glass is cuprous oxide. The specific gravity ranges from 2·31 to 2·49. ### [v1.c21.s8.6](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c21.s8.6) MASKI, five specimens: MK4 and MK5, Pd II, and MK1 to MK3, Pd III. MK1 is liver-red opaque weathered disc; MK2 dark brown moulded weathered glass; MK3 black weathered glass; MK4 bottle-green transparent bangle fragment; and MK5 purple transparent moulded bangle fragment. The specimens represent soda-lime silicate glass. The tinctorial agents are oxides of iron, copper, manganese and nickel. The liver-red colour is due to red oxide of copper, the green to oxide of iron (ferrous), the yellow to ferric oxide and the purple to manganese oxide. The specific gravity respectively is 2·34, 2·47, 2·21, 2·14 and 2·70. ### [v1.c21.s8.7](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c21.s8.7) KOPIA, three specimens, all early historical: KP1 is a colourless bead: KP2 black bead; KP3 pale yellow strip. KP1 is colourless due to the low proportion of ferric iron (2·50%) and the presence of manganese (0·1 manganese oxide). The black colour of KP2 is due to the high iron content and the pale yellow colour of KP3 of the low proportion of iron and a low concentration (0·08%) of manganese, which was evidently not sufficient to decolourize the glass completely. All the specimens are characterized by a low content of lime and magnesia and a high content of iron oxide and alumina. The specific gravity ranges from 2·51 to 2·53. ### [v1.c21.s8.8](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c21.s8.8) AHICCHATRĀ, two specimens: AC1, blue glass and AC2 green glass, both of the 1st century. The specimens represent soda-lime-silicate glass and are characterized by a high proportion of lime and magnesia and a low content of the sesquioxides. The presence of lead (PbO) in AC2 is significant as the use of lead in glass-making in the 1st century is very rare. The blue colour is due to copper oxide and the green to the combined effect of copper and lead oxides. ### [v1.c21.s8.9](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c21.s8.9) ARIKAMEDU, four specimens, all 1st-2nd century: AK1 is deep violet glass; AK2 bluish-violet glass; AK3 dull blue opaque bead; and AK4 deep red opaque glass. They represent potash-lime silicates, characterized by a high silica, a low lime-magnesia and iron oxide alumina contents. Manganese is responsible for the violet colour and the blue colour is due to the combined effect of ferrous iron and manganese. The specific gravity ranges between 2·51 and 2·63. ### [v1.c21.s8.10](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c21.s8.10) NĀLANDĀ, four specimens, all late historical. NL1 is a fragment of sky-blue glass; NL2 rectangular object of green glass; NL3 bead of opaque red glass; and NL4 blue glass. The red colour of NL3 is due to the combined effect of cuprous and ferrous oxides. The tinctorial agent of the blue glass is cuprous oxide and iron oxide is responsible for the green colour. ### [v1.c21.s8.11](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c21.s8.11) NĀSIK, two specimens both early historical: NS1 is bottle-green glass and NS2 black glass, both 4th century B.C., respectively soda-lime and soda-potash-lime silicate. The colour of NS1 is due to iron oxide. The specific gravity is respectively 2·59 and 2·52 and hardness 5 to 6 and 5. ### [v1.c21.s8.12](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c21.s8.12) The chemical compositions (per cent) of the above specimens are as follows. ### [v1.c21.s8.13](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c21.s8.13) SiO₂—in RG1 65·01, RG2 68·05, RG3 67·07, RG4 70·09, RG5 64·68; MS1 72·32, MS2 71·05, MS3 62·00, MS4 73·23, MS5 59·42; KP1 63·30, KP2 62·24, KP3 70·30; AC1 61·49, AC2 59·56; AK1 73·62, AK2 72·49, AK3 73·06, AK4 64·81; NL1 61·21, NL2 70·74, NL3 61·50, NL4 63·44; NS1 65·28, NS2 55·55. ### [v1.c21.s8.14](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c21.s8.14) Al₂O₃—in RG1 2·28, RG2 2·76, RG3 9·95, RG4 3·34, RG5 7·89; MS1 2·57, MS2 2·33, MS3 3·58, MS4 5·07, MS5 11·48; KP1 7·09; KP2 8·46, KP3 5·30; AC1 0·66, AC2 0·05; AK1 1·38, AK2 1·12, AK3 1·90, AK4 1·20; NL1 1·81, NL2 6·13, NL3 Fe₂O₃ 9·82, NL4 (with Fe₂O₃) 6·90; NS1 5·75, NS2 9·89. ### [v1.c21.s8.15](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c21.s8.15) Fe₂O₃—in RG1 9·96, RG2 1·84, RG3 2·59, RG4 1·26, RG5 4·20; KP1 2·50, KP2 7·20, KP3 1·20; AC1 5·29, AC2 5·40; AK1 3·84, AK2 6·50, AK3 1·10, AK4 3·41; NL1 1·60, NL2 1·54; NS1 4·78, NS2 3·06. ### [v1.c21.s8.16](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c21.s8.16) FeO—in AK3 2·00, NL3 7·01. ### [v1.c21.s8.17](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c21.s8.17) TiO₂—in KP1 1·10, KP2 0·51, KP3 trace; AK4 0·31. ### [v1.c21.s8.18](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c21.s8.18) NiO—in RG1 0·15; MS1 0·27. ### [v1.c21.s8.19](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c21.s8.19) PbO—in AC2 4·23; AK1 0·07, AK2 0·07. ### [v1.c21.s8.20](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c21.s8.20) MnO—in MS1 3·43, MS2 and MS3 trace; KP1 0·10, KP2 0·02, KP3 0·08; AC2 0·06; AK1 5·01, AK2 1·99 AK3 0·40; NL2 and NL4 trace; NS1 1·73, NS2 trace. ### [v1.c21.s8.21](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c21.s8.21) CuO—in RG2 2·40, RG4 1·13; MS5 2·69; AC1 2·39, AC2 1·82; AK4 0·72; NL4 1·13. ### [v1.c21.s8.22](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c21.s8.22) Cu₂O—in RG1 5·27; AK4 1·33; NL1 0·75, Nl3 0·49. ### [v1.c21.s8.23](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c21.s8.23) CaO—in RG1 4·08, RG2 8·04, RG3 6·35, RG4 8·90, RG5 5·42; MS1 2·71, MS2 5·65, MS3 5·48, MS4 9·78, MS5 5·61; KP1 3·64, KP2 3·13, KP3 2·38; AC1 6·60, AC2 6·54; AK1 1·96, AK2 2·94, AK3 3·90, AK4 4·81; NL1 8·15, NL2 2·11, NL3 5·20, NL4 8·00; NS1 11·88, NS2 5·59. ### [v1.c21.s8.24](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c21.s8.24) MgO—in RG1 0·49, RG2 0·98, RG3 0·44, RG4 1·10, RG5 0·86; MS1 and MS2 trace, MS3 3·11, MS4 2·34, MS5 3·13; KP1 1·85, KP2 1·55, KP3 1·20; AC1 4·61, AC2 4·34; AK1 0·30; AK2 0·68, AK3 1·40, AK4 2·35; NL1 3·83, NL2 0·26, NL3 0·06, NL4 4·14; NS1 1·48, NS2 2·93. P₂O₅—in AC1 1·94, AC2 1·36; AK4 5·00. SO₃—in AK4 0·10. Na₂O—in RG1 13·05 (with K₂O by difference), RG2 16·03, RG3 13·81, RG4 5·25, RG5 17·54; MS1 16·62, MS2 20·29, MS3 20·66, MS4 9·58, MS5 17·67; KP1 20·52, KP2 16·70, KP3 19·31; AC1 15·32, AC2 14·19; AK1 1·30, AK2 0·20, AK3 2·10, AK4 11·35; NL1 18·25, NL2 15·80, NL3 15·69; NS1 7·88, NS2 16·26. K₂O—in RG2 0·62, RG3 0·36, RG4 9·74, RG5 0·30; AC1 2·67, AC2 2·41; AK1 12·78, AK2 14·14, AK3 13·40, AK4 4·32 (SnO₂O); NL1 4·98, NL2 2·94, NL3 15·92 with K₂O (by difference), NL4 1·54; NS1 1·06, NS2 16·12. H₂O⁺—in MS1 0·98, MS3 1·46; NS1 0·18, NS2 0·56. Nil in cases where not specified. ### [v1.c21.s8.25](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c21.s8.25) Spectrochemical analysis of five specimens from TRIPURĪ has shown a lump of transparent bluish-green glass (300 to 100 B C.) to be a soda-lime silicate containing lead and copper which account for the colour. A blue tube-glass bead datable to c. 100 B.C. to A.D. 200 has also been found to be of soda-lime silicate, the colour being due to copper. Of particular significance are the other three specimens—a green bead (100 B.C. to A.D 200) and two blue beads (A.D. 200-400), which have been found to contain 3 to 5% barium and a high proportion of lead. Barium has not been found in any other Indian glass specimen. ### [v1.c21.s8.26](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c21.s8.26) Lal, B.B., 1952, in \*AI\*, 8, pp. 17-27. For sites see respective entries in vol II—B.B. LAL (Dr) ### 16.9 Metals ### [v1.c21.s9.1](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c21.s9.1) 16.9.1 \*Copper bronze\*. The main copper minerals of India are chalcopyrite, chalcocite, bornite, malachite and azurite. The major mining areas are confined to Rajasthan (Khetri belt, 80 km long), Bihar (Singhbhum belt, 130 km long) and Andhra (Guntur belt, 5 km long). First the sulphide ore is roasted to get rid of sulphur. The roasted ore passes through various stages of smelting: copper matte, roasted matte, blue metal, black copper and refined copper. Antimony and arsenic are volatilized; iron oxide is removed by siliceous fluxes. On the basis of the available limited trace impurity data on ores and artefacts one can probably correlate the Harappa \[4.9\] and Chalcolithic \[4.14\] artefacts with the Khetri belt and the Copper Hoards \[4.11\] with the Rakha mines in Singhbhum \[see DHALBHUM\]. Several ancient copper workings have given historical ¹⁴C dates; only from Rajpura Dariba mines in Rajasthan an early date of c. 1200 B C. is available (Agrawal \*et al.\*, 1977, pp. 229-36). ### [v1.c21.s9.2](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c21.s9.2) A few copper pieces first appear in the pre-Harappa \[4.8\] levels of KALIBANGAN, though in Afghanistan and Pakistan the beginnings are earlier. But compared to 5th-4th millennium B.C dates for the beginning of copper metallurgy in Iran the dates in India are later by 1000 years or more. ### [v1.c21.s9.3](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c21.s9.3) The Harappa culture is quite rich in copper; the tool repertoire is marked by a variety of razors, knives, chisels, thin arrowheads and spearheads, axes and fishhooks, besides a variety of pots and pans. True saws \[6.21\] with teeth and body set alternatively from side to side appear at Mohenjo-daro, perhaps for the first time in the world. Tubular drills also are the first contribution of the Harappans. The mouldings are neither as ornate as the Chinese examples, nor as intricate as the Mesopotamian ones. But they do reveal the technology of closed casting (e.g. mid-ribbed swords) and \*cire perdue\* technology (e.g. dancing figurine from Mohenjodaro). ### [v1.c21.s9.4](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c21.s9.4) The available analyses show: ### [v1.c21.s9.5](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c21.s9.5) | \*Tin content %\* | \*Artefact %\* | | 1 | 70 | | 1 to 7 | 10 | | 8 to 12 | 14 | | 12 | 6 | ### [v1.c21.s9.6](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c21.s9.6) For optimum strength and ductility only 8 to 12% tin \[16.9.5\] is required for alloying. But from the above we see that only 14% of the artefacts are in the optimum tin range. This may indicate either lack of control over correct alloying proportions or lack of knowledge of the required optimum tin content. The fact that 70% of the artefacts are unalloyed may indicate a general scarcity of tin. At Mohenjo-daro the upper levels have 23% bronze tools and in the lower levels only 6%. Mainly knives, axes and chisels are alloyed. ### [v1.c21.s9.7](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c21.s9.7) Out of 177 artefacts from Mohenjo-daro and Harappa the following (non-tin) alloying pattern is obtained: ### [v1.c21.s9.8](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c21.s9.8) | \*Alloying\* | \*Artefact %\* | | As (arsenic), 1 to 7% | 8 | | Ni (nickel), 1 to 9% | 4 | | Pb (lead), 1 to 32% | 6 | ### [v1.c21.s9.9](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c21.s9.9) Though even 1% of As increases the hardness of copper from 124 to 177 (Brinell hardness nos.), still only 8% artefacts are alloyed wth arsenic. Arsenic may have been used only as a deoxidizer for closed castings. Three examples from SURKOTADA have more than 13% lead. The metal forging techniques of ‘sinking’, ‘raising’, ‘running’, cold work, annealing, riveting, lapping, etc., are evidenced in various tools and pots. ### [v1.c21.s9.10](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c21.s9.10) The tool repertoire of the Banas \[4.14.1\], KAYATHA, Malwa \[4.14.5\] and Jorwe \[4.14.6\], cultures consists of flat axes, fish-hooks, a few daggers, beads, nails, rods, wires, rings and anklets. A dagger from CHANDOLI has an antennae-like hilt. No pots and pans of metal are used in these cultures. Metallographic examination of the artefacts shows the use of cold work and annealing. Casting was generally open, though the KAYATHA axes show a superb craftsmanship and the use of closed moulds. No arsenic alloying is known; but lead was used in 1 to 2% range, perhaps for better fusibility. Generally the tin content is 1 to 5%, except for a SOMNATH axe which has 12.8% tin. In objects from AHAR² there is no alloying. ### [v1.c21.s9.11](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c21.s9.11) A variety of types is represented in the artefacts of the Copper Hoard culture: antennae swords \[19.2.2\], socketed axes \[6.2\], axe-adzes, trunnion axes, celts, harpoons \[19.2.1\], bar celts, spearheads, rings and anthropomorphs \[19.2.3\]. Without going into controversies, it may be stated that only the antennae sword, the anthropomorph and the harpoon are distinctive of the culture and its area of distribution is essentially the Ganga valley, where the metal is in abundance. In fact the GUNGERIA hoard alone weighs more than 400 kg. ### [v1.c21.s9.12](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c21.s9.12) The Copper Hoard technology appears quite developed if one sees the double-mould-cast harpoons. But the few specimens metallographically examined so far do not show any evidence of annealing or of cold work. ### [v1.c21.s9.13](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c21.s9.13) Smith 1905, reported tin alloying (6 to 13%) in some Copper Hoard examples in the British Museum. But so far we have not been able to get any evidence of tin in alloying from the examined artefacts from SHAHABAD, KAMDERA, Dhanbad, DARGAMA, HAMI and BAHADRABAD. However the celts from HAMI and Dhanbad show 5 to 8% As. These are the only examples of As alloying in the whole range of the Copper Hoards so far and may have been used as a deoxidizer for casting. Only in two instances from HAMI is there more than 1% Pb. Lal, 1951, p. 24, also reported the absence of tin in the BISAULI anthropomorph. Thus all the recent analyses of definite Copper Hoard specimens show absence of tin alloying. But it goes to the credit of the Copper Hoard technology that despite the use of pure copper, which is so difficult to cast, they could carry out complicated casting of harpoons, etc. ### [v1.c21.s9.14](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c21.s9.14) \[For late historical Buddhist bronzes from NĀLANDĀ \*see AI\*, 12, 1956, pp. 53-7.\] ### [v1.c21.s9.15](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c21.s9.15) Agrawal, D.P., 1971, \*Copper Bronze Age in India\*. New Delhi, with full bibliography; 1976, in \*Arch. Congress & Seminar, 1972\*, Kurukshetra, pp. 85-9 (for artefact-ore correlation). Agrawal, D.P., Krishnamurthy, R V., Kusumgar, S., & Pant, R.K. 1977, in \*Radiocarbon\*, 19 (for Rajpura Dariba dates). Lal, B.B., 1951, in \*AI\*, 7 (for analysis of Bisauli anthropomorph). Ray, A., & Chakrabarti, D.K., 1975, in \*Jour. Economic & Social History of the Orient\*, 18, 2, p. 219 (for ancient technology). Smith, V.A., 1905, in \*Indian Antiquary\*, 34, pp. 229-44.—D.P. AGRAWAL ### [v1.c21.s9.16](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c21.s9.16) \*16.9.2 Iron.\* India is endowed with high-quality rich deposits of haematite, magnetite and limonite. Deposits of Singhbhum-Mayurbhanj in Bihar and Orissa, Salem-Tiruchchirappalli in Tamil Nadu, Bellary, Kemmangundi and Hiriyur in Karnataka and Bailadila and Rowghat in Madhya Pradesh merit special mention. Some of these deposits might account for a flourishing iron industry and high quality of iron. It is not without significance that two nuclear cultural zones of the Iron Age, viz. Magadha and the Deccan and s., were comfortably located near the rich iron-bearing areas. ### [v1.c21.s9.17](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c21.s9.17) There are no technological data on iron prior to NBPW phase \[4.18.1\] \[though iron was known in India earlier\]. Studies on iron objects from the NBPW phase reveal that early iron was slag-bearing wrought iron (Bhardwaj, 1973). The metal was malleable and could be forge-welded. Iron ore was converted to blooms of spongy iron by the process of direct reduction. The desired objects were forged stage by stage from bloom to a bar, then thinning, pointing, folding and forge-welding. Some of the forge-welding operations require higher temperature necessitating the use of forced draught. UJJAIN, Pd II, 500-200 B.C., provides some evidence of the smelting of iron and use of lime as flux. A furnace for forging iron objects has been reported from this site. \[For other sites see 16.7.\] ### [v1.c21.s9.18](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c21.s9.18) Wrought iron provides cheaper metal for extensive and general use. However the real impact of iron technology was achieved with accidental carburization brought about by heating and reheating of wrought iron objects in a charcoal fire during forging. This resulted in partial though uneven conversion of iron objects into those of steel. This practice known as carburization or case-hardening came into vogue during the NBPW phase and could replace bronze. ### [v1.c21.s9.19](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c21.s9.19) From the accounts of Herodotos, Ktesias and Quintus Curtius it is clear that Indian iron was a prized commodity even in the pre-Christian era. Probably the reference is to wootz, a type of Indian steel made by a process resembling the modern cementation or crucible process. Wrought iron was heated with wood and leaves of specific plants in a closed crucible over a charcoal fire maintained at a high temperature by blowing air. The process was completed in a few hours. The annealed metal was quenched in different liquids to get the desired hardness. Cakes of wootz were also exported for manufacturing the so-called Damascus blades. This type of steel was specially manufactured in Hyderabad, Karnataka, Salem, etc. Ancient methods of making iron and steel are still followed by the primitive tribes like the Agarias, Marias, Asurs, etc. ### [v1.c21.s9.20](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c21.s9.20) In the late phase of Pd II and early phase of Pd III of UJJAIN there is evidence of iron-smelting in the form of large deposits of iron slag, unsmelted or partly smelted iron ore, lumps of calcite or aragonite and quantities of a whitish powder, presumably lime, in close association with a canal \[14.7\]. ### [v1.c21.s9.21](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c21.s9.21) In the post-Christian period iron technology excelled in forging enormous masses of iron into huge pillars and large beams showing high resistance to corrosion. The classical example is the famous 4th-century iron pillar at Mehrauli in Delhi. Its dimensions are: length 7·20 m, above ground 6·70 m, underground 0·50 m, upper diameter 0·30 m; lower diameter 0·40 m the total estimated weight is over 6096 kg. Its percentage chemical composition is: iron 99·768; carbon, 0·23; silicon, 0·026; phosphorus, 0·180; manganese, nil; sulphur, trace; and nitrogen, 0.0065. The specific gravity is 7·747 and the metal is wrought iron. The pillar is believed to be made by successively forge-welding blooms of wrought iron. The corrosion resistance of this pillar has been an enigma to scientists. It is generally ascribed to: (1) the purity of iron, high phosphorus, low sulphur and absence of manganese; (2) cinder coating formed on the surface and better conditions in the surface roughness; (3) better forge-welding; and (4) drier and uncontaminated atmospheric conditions (Ghosh, 1963). \[The rustlessness of the pillar has been exaggerated. While the body of the pillar is smooth, an excavation of its rough underground portion in 1961 showed that that portion was thickly covered with rust and other corrosion products. So was also the socket at its top, to hold a capital or emblem. \*IAR—1961-2\*, 149.\] ### [v1.c21.s9.22](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c21.s9.22) The 12th-century colossal iron pillar at Dhr, the ancient capital of Malwa, has a length of 13·30 m, now in three pieces. It is rectangular in cross-section with an average width of 0·25 m. Its estimated weight is 7112 kg. Like the Delhi pillar it is also made of wrought iron. ### [v1.c21.s9.23](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c21.s9.23) An extensive use of large iron beams is found in temples in Orissa built from the 9th to the 13th century. The Sun temple at Konark has yielded 29 iron beams, the largest of which is over 10·66 m long and 12 × 12 cm in cross-section. The Jagannātha temple at Puri has 239 iron beams, their dimensions ranging up to 5·18 m in length and 15 × 10 cm or 13 × 15 cm in cross-section. They are of wrought iron, and the percentage chemical composition is: iron, 99·64; carbon, trace; sulphur, trace; manganese, nil; phosphorus, 0·15. Despite a similarity in composition of the iron beams with the Delhi pillar, these beams are severely corroded on account of salt-laden air of the sea coast. ### [v1.c21.s9.24](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c21.s9.24) Banerjee, N.R., 1965, \*Iron Age in India\*, Delhi. Bhardwaj, H.C., 1973, in Agrawal, D.P., & Ghosh, A., ed., \*Radiocarbon & Indian Arch.\*, Bombay. Ghosh, M.K., 1963, in \*National Metallurgical Laboratory Technical Jour.\*, Jamshedpur. Neogi, P., 1914., \*Iron in Ancient India\*, Calcutta.—H.C. BHARDWAJ ### 16.9.3 Other metals—gold, silver and lead ### [v1.c21.s9.t1.1](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c21.s9.t1.1) In India the antiquity of this metal goes back to the Harappa \[4.9\] period. Gold ornaments are known from LOTHAL (Harappa), ROJDI (late Harappa), TEKKALAKOTA (Neolithic-Chalcolithic \[4.14.8\], Phase I), DAIMABAD (Chalcolithic \[4.14.6\]), KAUŚĀMBĪ (300 B.C.) and the Megalithic burials \[4.17\]. Gold foil beads and small gold objects are reported during the early historical period from NEVASA, NASIK, JORWE, PANDU RAJAR DHIBI, VAIŚĀLĪ, NAGARJUNAKONDA, etc. Except in the Harappa period gold was a scarce metal all through. From the Kushan period this metal was no longer scarce and its use in the form of coins was quite popular. Gupta gold coins show excellent gold metallurgy \[3.1\]. ### [v1.c21.s9.t1.2](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c21.s9.t1.2) Gold occurs in two forms: (1) As ‘placer’ metal (alluvial or detrital gold) it is found in the auriferous sands and gravels of a large number of rivers which pass over auriferous rocks, as in Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Bihar (especially the region of Dts Singhbhum and Manbhum and in the valleys of the Subarnarekha river). That alluvial gold-washing was carried out in antiquity is substantiated from the fact that gold dust was paid by the Indian provinces as tribute to Darius the Achaemenid. (2) Important sources of gold in the form of quartz veins or reefs are the Kolar gold mines which produce 99% of India’s gold output. In addition the Hutti gold mines in Dt Raichur, Ramagiri area in Dt Anantapur and Wynaad area in Dt Nilgiri also deserve mention. ### [v1.c21.s9.t1.3](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c21.s9.t1.3) In the beginning gold nuggets were collected from the surface and gold was mined by ‘open cast’ method. A later method used for mining appears to have been ‘fire-setting’, where rock faces were heated and then cracked by throwing water on them. This helped in sinking deep shafts in quartz veins. Stray finds among old workings, two ¹⁴C samples from Hutti and field investigations indicate that shafts through the quartz veins had reached a considerable depth by the beginning of the Christian era. Over 240 m deep anciently worked mines have been recorded at frequent intervals along several km of reefs of the Kolar and Hutti gold mines. ### [v1.c21.s9.t1.4](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c21.s9.t1.4) Considering that gold from Kolar and Hutti gold mines is of light colour (being electrum, a native gold-silver alloy) and similar gold objects have been recovered from the Harappa sites, it has been inferred that the surface collection of gold nuggets had started by the Harappa period. The clustering of Neolithic sites around gold-mining areas and the recovery of gold ornaments from limited excavations of the Neolithic-Chalcolithic site of TEKKALAKOTA and Chalcolithic site of DAIMABAD confirm that the exploitation of these gold mines continued after the Harappa period. ### [v1.c21.s9.t1.5](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c21.s9.t1.5) Small pure metallic nuggets collected from the mining area could be hammered and directly shaped into simple ornaments and need not necessarily have needed the expert services of a goldsmith. But gold mined from quartz veins needed some treatment. The detached rock was carried outside the mine where it was crushed in large stone mortars and finally ground. This powder was washed with water on a sloping surface and gold particles were separated. Alternatively alluvial gold was agitated with water in pans, cradles and sluices, so that earthy matter was floated off and gold particles were retained. ### [v1.c21.s9.t1.6](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c21.s9.t1.6) Gold particles whether obtained from alluvial washing or separated from reef gold were fused into small ingots in clay crucibles over charcoal fire at a temperature of 1063° C. ### [v1.c21.s9.t1.7](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c21.s9.t1.7) In the Harappa period gold ornaments were made both by hammering and casting. The art of drawing gold wires, soldering the metal and making both hollow and solid gold ornaments was known. Hollow conical ear ornaments, corrugated finger rings, large circular gold pendants with axial holes and minute beads show a remarkable skill of the craftsman. ### [v1.c21.s9.t1.8](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c21.s9.t1.8) \[An analysis of the gold ornaments such as necklaces, spiral ear-rings and ear ornaments from the MAHURJHARI (Megalithic \[4.17.6\]) stone circles shows that whereas some are of 99·8% pure gold, several others are a mixture of gold and silver, each contributing nearly 50%. The ornaments were variously made of solid gold wire, gold leaf possibly mounted on a lac base and tubes filled in with lac. The NAGARJUNAKONDA megaliths \[4.17.7\] have yielded spiral-shaped ear-rings and 35 cylindrical beads of thin sheet gold. An alloy of silver has been used for the manufacture of 18 spacer beads exactly similar in shape to the gold ones. Gold diadems have been found in the urn burials \[4.17.9\] of ADICHANALLUR\]. ### [v1.c21.s9.t1.9](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c21.s9.t1.9) The chemical composition of Gupta gold coins shows them to be an alloy of gold (75%) and silver (25%). This alloy has favourable mechanical properties and good castability. It has high ductility, low annealing temperature and extremely easy workability. Twenty-five per cent silver has helped to increase the hardness (160 Vickers hardness no.). The macro-examination of the coins shows excellent embossing on both the sides indicating that striking techniques were well developed. ### [v1.c21.s9.t1.10](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c21.s9.t1.10) Both silver and lead may be dealt with together on account of their common source and metallurgy. The earliest use of these metals goes back to the Harappa period. A silver bangle and a few silver fragments are reported from LOTHAL. 102 silver plates were recovered in association with the Copper Hoards \[4.11\] from GUNGERIA. The regular use of silver is marked by the introduction of silver punch-marked coins \[3.1\] by 600 B.C. Lead objects are reported from Harappa sites now in Pakistan but not from those in India. However lead was frequently used in this period for alloying with copper \[4.9.1\] and its advantage in lowering the melting point and thus easing in casting was fully realized. In the early historical period lead was a common metal, and its objects in the form of spools of coiled strip, wire, nails, antimony rods \[18.1\] and the like are reported from many sites. Lead was also used for minting coins. ### [v1.c21.s9.t1.11](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c21.s9.t1.11) There are no silver ores in India. Most of the silver is obtained as a by-product of the smelting of lead ores. The major sources of silver and lead have been the argentiferous lead-zinc ores of the Dawdwin mines in Burma and the Zewar mine, Dt Udaipur. Both of these are reputed to have been worked in antiquity. It is quite likely that silver ores were also obtained from Baluchistan, Afghanistan, Iran, etc. A small amount of silver could have come from the gold mines of s. India where this metal is found naturally alloyed with gold and is believed to have been used since the Harappa period. ### [v1.c21.s9.t1.12](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c21.s9.t1.12) But the impurity pattern of Mohenjo-daro silver (the chemical analysis of LOTHAL silver is not available) and punch-marked coins in general shows that their source was argentiferous galena rather than electrum. However silver plates reported from GUNGERIA show 3·70% gold and a punch-marked coin in the Lucknow museum has been reported with 10·53% gold. This could imply that a method of separation of silver from gold was worked out during the Copper Hoard period \[4.11\]. ### [v1.c21.s9.t1.13](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c21.s9.t1.13) The production of both lead and silver was from the same ore—argentiferous galena (basically an ore of lead in which silver occurs as an impurity). Smelting of this ore and extraction of lead from it is one of the simplest metallurgical operations. In ancient times metallic lead could have been obtained by simply heaping the ore on top of the fuel placed on the ground or in a pit. Fused metal, which melts at 327° C, could have run out at the bottom of the heap and was collected. (Reduction temperature of lead oxide is well within 800° C and so smelting could be done easily in a domestic fire using charcoal.) ### [v1.c21.s9.t1.14](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c21.s9.t1.14) Crude lead (base bullion) as obtained above was repeatedly melted and crystallized and lead crystals were removed. This resulted in the concentration of silver as in the modern Pattinson’s process. The remnant of lead was removed by the cupellation process. ### [v1.c21.s9.t1.15](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c21.s9.t1.15) Metallurgical studies of silver punch-marked coins reveal that despite primitive techniques by 600 B.C. Indians could obtain silver of high purity (0·1 to 0·5% lead was the main impurity). It indicates that cupellation was carried out with great perfection. Alloying of silver with copper was deliberate and in correct proportion, giving ease in casting, providing optimum strength and wear resistance. It also economized the metal. ### [v1.c21.s9.t1.16](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c21.s9.t1.16) Allchin, F.R., 1962, in \*Jour. Economic & Social History of the Orient\*, 5 (for methods of gold mining in ancient India). Bhardwaj, H.C. & Misra, S., 1968, in \*Jour. Numismatic Soc. of India\*, 30, pp. ### [v1.c21.s9.t1.17](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c21.s9.t1.17) 241-51 (for silver coins): 1971, in \*ibid\*., 33, 123-7 (for Gupta coins).—H.C. BHARDWAJ ### [v1.c21.s9.t1.18](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c21.s9.t1.18) \*16.9.4 Slag\*. Slag is the refuse material left after the smelting of metallic ores and comprises fused earthy matter. On account of its easy fusibility and low density it is conveniently removed during smelting, the separation being facilitated by the use of flux. It survives in a good condition without much chemical alteration and is of great significance in archaeological metallurgy. ### [v1.c21.s9.t1.19](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c21.s9.t1.19) Smelting of ores was generally done more near mining areas than in habitational settlements. Accordingly enormous quantities of slag of copper, lead and iron are found littered around these areas. Some of them may belong to great antiquity though no definite dates can be assigned to them. ### [v1.c21.s9.t1.20](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c21.s9.t1.20) Copper slag is also reported from such sites as LOTHAI. (Harappa \[4.9\]), AHAR² (Chalcolithic \[4.14.1\]), RAJGHAT⁴ and SHAMALAJI (early historical); and iron slag from HASTINĀPURA (PGW), RAJGHAT⁴, UJJAIN, PANDU RAJAR DHIBI, MAHISDAL, SARADKEL and SHAMALAJI (all early historical). So-called glassy slag is reported from NAVDATOLI, MAHESHWAR, NAGARA, NEVASA and KOPIA (all from early historical levels). Slag is reported from a number of ash mound sites \[14.3\]. ### [v1.c21.s9.t1.21](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c21.s9.t1.21) The occurrence of slag is an evidence of local smelting. Its analyses are instructive in that they reveal the contemporary smelting practices, nature of the ores used, percentage of the metal extracted, use of flux and the temperature available. The analyses of (1) copper slag from AHAR² (Chalcolithic), (2) copper slag from RAJGHAT⁴, Pd I (early historical), (3) iron slag (from the same site and level), and (4) slag from KUPGAL (ash mound) are as follows per cent: loss on ignition—in (1) and (2) nil, in (3) 3·14, in (4) 10·5 (by difference); SiO₂—in (1) 38·16, in (2) 39·17, in (3) 16·32, in (4) 62·00; Fe₂O₃/FeO—in (1) 45·32, in (2) 38·72, in (3) 74·43, in (4) 11·00 (combined with Al₂O₃); Al₂O₃—in (1) 5·96, in (2) 12·02, in (3) 4·25, in (4) see above; CaO—in (1) nil, in (2) 5·39, in (3) 1·20, in (4) 8·00; MgO—in (1) 3·02, in (2) 0·62, in (3) 0·45, in (4) nil; MnO₂—in (1) 0·89, in (2), (3) and (4) nil; CuO—in (1) 0·91, in (2) 1·05, in (3) and (4) nil; Ni, in (1), (3) and (4) nil, in (2) trace; SO₃—in (1) 4·14, in (2) 0·20, in (3) and (4) nil; P₂O₅—in 1 and (2) nil, in (3) trace, in (4) 2·5; TiO₂—in (1), (2) and (4) nil, in (3) trace; K₂O—in (1), (2) and (3) nil, in (4) 5·00; C—in (1), (2) and (3) nil, in (4) 1·00. Thus in (1) and (2) chalcopyrite is the main copper ore used and either the ore contained good percentage of silica or silica was added as flux. About 1% of the metal is left in the slag which shows that extraction was fairly good. In (3) very rich ore was used but as much as 74% of the ore was left unsmelted. It implies that iron technology was not yet fully evolved and the requisite temperature was not available. The so-called slag reported from the ash mounds is not of iron but is the product of continual burning of cowdung. ### [v1.c21.s9.t1.22](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c21.s9.t1.22) Bhardwaj, H.C., "Aspects of Ancient Indian Technology", Ph.D. \*thesis\*, Banaras Hindu Univ.; in Agrawal, D.P., & Ghosh, A., ed., 1973, \*Radiocarbon & Indian Arch\*., Bombay. Hegde, K.T.M., in Sankalia, H.D., \*et al\*., 1969, \*Excavations at Ahar\*, Poona. Mujumdar, G.G., & Rajaguru, S N., 1966, \*Ashmound Excavations at Kupgal\*, Poona. For other sites see respective entries in vol. II.—H.C. BHARDWAJ _First 107 of 216 passages. 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