[Pramāṇa](https://indike.org/pramana/) › [Studies](https://indike.org/pramana/ins) › [Reference works](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference) › [An Encyclopaedia of Indian Archaeology](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989) › v1.c22 # An Encyclopaedia of Indian Archaeology v1.c22: 17 Terracotta Figurines An Encyclopaedia of Indian Archaeology v1.c22 - **Language:** English ## Contents - [v1.c22.s1 17.1 Animal](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c22.s1) — 12 parts - [v1.c22.s2 17.2 Human](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c22.s2) — 16 parts ### 17 Terracotta Figurines ### 17.1 Animal ### [v1.c22.s1.1](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c22.s1.1) Technically the terracotta animal figurines of India have from the earliest times a basic similarity in manufacture, viz. hand-modelling, pinching of clay, applied, incised and pin-hole decoration or detail, the mould being used towards the early centuries of the Christian era. However there are some peculiar techniques and stylistic variations in the making of these figurines in different periods and regions and these do not permit us to label all the varieties as 'timeless'. ### [v1.c22.s1.2](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c22.s1.2) The earliest terracotta animal figurines found on the subcontinent are from the Chalcolithic sites of settled agricultural communities of Kulli, Quetta and Zhob regions of Baluchistan. They consist of hand-modelled bulls with exaggerated humps and stumpy legs and painted with vertical stripes across the body. The largeness of their number in a restricted area of the site at Kulli perhaps suggests their use as offerings on a cultic spot. Some figurines with their legs pierced for wheel axles were possibly used as toys. ### [v1.c22.s1.3](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c22.s1.3) In contrast to these Baluchistan settlements the Harappa culture \[4.9\] has a large variety of animal figurines, consisting of the bull, ram, sheep, elephant, tiger, lion (double-headed stylized bust), dog, bear, rhinoceros, unicorn, cow (two specimens from LOTHAL), pig, monkey, cat, squirrel, etc. The horse is absent except for a specimen from LOTHAL and possibly another from Mohenjo-daro. The bull is represented in two varieties: one with a pronounced hump, large horns and stumpy legs and the other with a small hump, short horns and thick neck. The latter is seen at KALIBANGAN, LOTHAL, Harappa and Mohenjo-daro. The non-naturalistic wheeled bull from SURKOTADA, Phase IC differs in the plastic conception from the other Harappa animals which are on the whole realistic in treatment. For instance the folded hide of the rhinoceros is shown by an additional layer of clay and the fleece of the sheep is indicated by nail incisions. The exact function of the Harappa animal figurines is not known but those with an arrangement for wheels and movable neck seem to have been used as toys \[6.7.4\], whereas some figurines of the ram and bull could have been used as votive offerings or cult objects. ### [v1.c22.s1.4](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c22.s1.4) The peninsular Neolithic \[4.6.8-10\] sites such as PIKLIHAL, PAIYAMPALLI, SANGANAKALLU and TEKKALAKOTTA have some figurines of crudely modelled cattle with long horns. The Neolithic-Chalcolithic \[4.6.4, 4.14.3\] phase at CHIRAND has yielded some figurines of the humped bull and \*nāga\* (snake). The Banas culture \[4.14.1\] at AHAR² and GILUND have some stylized bull figurines with long horns and a pronounced hump. A horse figurine has been reported from AHAR² ### [v1.c22.s1.5](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c22.s1.5) In the post-Harappa Chalcolithic village culture of INAMGAON (Jorwe phase \[4.14.6\]) the bull seems to have been associated with a cult of the headless goddess \[12.6\] as suggested by Sankalia, 1974. KAYATHA, Pd II, gives interesting material on what seems to have been cultic use of bull. Both naturalistic and stylized depictions are seen. The latter is in some specimens a minimal from abstracted to two horns and a hump. CHANDOLI and NEVASA have zoomorphic bottles resembling a bull. NAVDATOLI and PRAKASH have jars applied with animal figures including that of a tortoise. ### [v1.c22.s1.6](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c22.s1.6) The late Harappa \[4.10\] phase showing an overlap with the OCW phase \[4.12\] at BARGAON and AMBKHERI has representations of bull-headed toy carts. BHAGWANPURA² which represents an overlap of the late Harappa and PGW \[4.15\] cultures has yielded rams with deep incisions. Almost the same type of ram and bull have been noted at ALAMGIRPUR (PGW). HASTINĀPURA, Pd II, has yielded crudely modelled figurines, possibly of a horse and bull. ### [v1.c22.s1.7](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c22.s1.7) As we come to the NBPW \[4.18.1\] levels a large variety of animal figurines, viz. the elephant, bull, horse, ram, dog, monkey, \*nāgī\*, etc., gradually begin to appear in numerous towns of the Ganga valley. The \*nāgī\* figurines which also occur in the pre-NBP levels at certain sites of Bihar and Uttar Pradesh are stylized and have a snakehood and human female body. They are handmade and beat punched and incised marks to show the navel, girdle, etc. The elephants of BUXAR are noteworthy in that they bear painted vertical stripes. A lustrous polish as on the NBPW is seen on the animal figurines of PRAHLADPUR, MATHURA, etc. At MATHURA some of the elephant figurines are hollow produced on a wheel and have applied tail and trunk. The animals of BUXAR, PĀTALIPUTRA, VAIŚĀLĪ, MASAON, MATHURA, HASTINĀPURA, PURĀNA QILA, ATRANJIKHERA, etc., are meticulously decorated as if they were ceremonial animals. The decoration consists of applied bands, punched-marked and incised circlets, rosette motifs and in some cases even stamped leaf motif as on the mother goddess figurines. Some elephant and horse figurines have riders attached to them. ### [v1.c22.s1.8](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c22.s1.8) In the centuries around the Christian era wheeled animal heads, mainly of the ram, elephant, bull and crocodile, are seen at a large number of sites of W. Bengal, Bihar and Uttar Pradesh. Hollow figurines of the pig and bull were used in the form of rattles. Moduled reliefs of bullock carts and horse chariots \[16.17.1\] showing the frontal view are also found at KAUŚĀMBĪ, BHITA, MATHURA, etc. Hollow round plaques and skin-rubbers \[18.4\] found at AHICCHATRĀ, RAJGHAT, etc., have animal motifs such as the elephant, crocodile, griffin, etc., indicating the decorative function of the animals. ### [v1.c22.s1.9](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c22.s1.9) The Megalithic \[4.8, 9\] sites of PAIYAMPALLI, KUNNATUR, SANUR and BRAHMAGIRI have yielded very few clay animal figurines. Those from the Nilgiris are of a doubtful date. In the early centuries of the Christian era, with the urbanization of the Deccan we get delicate hollow terracottas or kaolin figurines at PAITHAN, NEVASA, TER, KONDAPUR, YELLESWARAM, etc. These figurines, produced out of two moulds, consist of the buffalo, horse, bull (usually seated on a platformlike \*nandī\*), ram, etc., which are lavishly ornamented with trappings. It is doubtful whether such delicate figurines would have been used as toys. Perforations near the base of some of the bull figurines indicate their use as amulets \[12.1\]. Crocodile (\*makara\*) amulets have been found at NEVASA. Animal figurines have been reported from KANCHIPURAM, TIRUKKAMBULIYUR and KĀVERĪPAṬṬIṆAM. ### [v1.c22.s1.10](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c22.s1.10) The use of double moulds is also seen in the n. at AHICCHATRĀ, MATHURA, BHITA, BHITARI, etc., in the manufacture of the horse and elephant with or without riders in \*c.\* A.D. 500 to 650. These figurines were produced by pressing the two moulds on to the solid core of clay and were rarely made hollow. These figurines, with a minimum of detail and a slab-like appearance, have a similarity with those of Seleucia according to Agrawala, 1947-48. ### [v1.c22.s1.11](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c22.s1.11) Compared to the large quantity of the previous periods, in the period after 650 we get very few animal figurines, and those too crudely modelled. These are found at sites like AHICCHATRĀ, ATRANJIKHERA, PURANA QILA, RAJGHAT⁴, ANTICHAK, RAJBADIDANGA in the n. and e. and URAIYUR, KĀVERĪPAṬṬIṆAM, SANKARAM, etc., in the s. ### [v1.c22.s1.12](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c22.s1.12) \*Ind. Soc. of Oriental Art\*, 8 (for Mathura terracottas). Marshall, J., 1931, \*Mohenjo-daro & the Indus Civilization\*, London. Sankalia, H.D., 1974, \*Prehistory & Protohistory of India & Pakistan\*, Poona. Sankalia, H.D., & Dhavalikar, M.K., 1969, in \*Mārg\*, 23, 1 (for terracotta art). Subramanian, A., 1975, in \*Annals of Oriental Res.\* (for terracottas from Tamil Nadu). For sites see respective entries in vol. II.—D. DESAI ### 17.2 Human ### [v1.c22.s2.1](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c22.s2.1) The first human (female) figurines of the subcontinent have been found in the settlements of the agricultural communities of Baluchistan in the Zhob, Quetta and Kulli regions. Male figurines appear for the first time in the Indus civilization \[4.9\], but here too the female figurines outnumber them. Both in the Baluchistan and Indus cultures the female figurines seem to be associated with a cult of the mother goddess \[12.6\] either as images or as votive offerings. Typologically the figurines of each culture differ and have their own peculiarities, although technically they have a common method of hand-modelling and applied decoration. While those of Kulli, for instance, are pedestalled below the waist, the figurines of the Indus are full-size figures having a fanlike head-dress with horn and cup-like projections. The Indus type of female figurines have, however, not been reported from the Harappa sites of KALIBANGAN, LOTHAL and SURKOTADA. Pregnant women and mothers holding children (in some specimens with bear or monkey mask) have been found at Mohenjo-daro. The male figurines of the Indus civilization sitting with arms around the knees, similar to the ‘sorrowful god’ found by Marija Gimbutas in Old Europe and dated to \*c.\* 4500 B.C., could have been representative of the subordinate male partner of the goddess who was sacrificed during seasonal rites. There are representations of the Sumerian types at KALIBANGAN and Mohenjo-daro and of a miniature mummy at LOTHAL, as also miniature masks \[6.13\] with horns and oblique eyes produced by moulds. Some figurines seem to be secular, for instance a female kneading dough. ### [v1.c22.s2.2](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c22.s2.2) Human female figures are conspicuously absent in the peninsular Neolithic cultures \[4.6.7-10\]. At PIKLIHAL some crudely modelled male torsos have been found. ### [v1.c22.s2.3](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c22.s2.3) Some female figurines have been reported from Neolithic CHIRAND, Pd I A, and from several sites of the Chalcolithic cultures of e. \[4.14.3-4\] and c. India \[4.14.5\] and the Deccan \[4.14.6-8\]. These figurines are typologically different from those of the Harappa culture. They have a plump physiognomy and stumpy legs and lack ornamentation. Most of them are headless, e.g. those from ORIUP, BILWALI, INAMGAON and NEVASA. The BILWALI figurines are fiddle-shaped. The NEVASA and NAVDATOLI ones are applied on storage jars suggesting a protective or fertility function. The headless goddess found within a clay box in a house at INAMGAON has ### [v1.c22.s2.4](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c22.s2.4) Agrawala, V.S., 1947-8, in \*AI\*, 4 (for Ahicchatrā terracottas). Allchin, B., & R., 1968, \*Birth of Indian Civilization\*, Harmondsworth. Dasgupta, C.C., 1961, \*Origin & Evolution of Indian Clay Sculpture\*, Calcutta. Desai, D., 1978, in \*History & Society\* (for social background of terracottas). Dhavalikar, M.K., 1977, \*Masterpieces of Indian Terracottas\*, Bombay. Joshi, M.C., & Margabandhu, C., 1976-7, in \*Jour.\* ### [v1.c22.s2.5](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c22.s2.5) perhaps links with w. Asia. Male figurines reported from a late phase at INAMGAON are also headless and are unbaked. ### [v1.c22.s2.6](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c22.s2.6) Human figurines were rare in cultures associated with the OCW \[4.12\] and PGW \[4.15\] in n. India. LAL QILA (OCW) has two female figurines, one of which is well-preserved and has perforations in the shoulders for attaching arms. Among the PGW sites JAKHERA has produced human figurines (male and female), ATRANJIKHERA (late PGW and early NBPW levels, two females), KHALAUA (human head) and BHAGWANPURA (anthropomorphic figures). ### [v1.c22.s2.7](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c22.s2.7) The largest number of terracotta human figurines of ancient India are found in the period \*c.\* 600 B.C. to A.D 650. It is from the pre-NBPW or early NBPW levels \[4.18.1\] that we gradually begin to get human figurines at BUXAR, PĀTALIPUTRA, CHIRAND, KAUŚĀMBĪ, MATHURA, etc. These are crudely hand-modelled and the use of the punching technique is noticeable. From \*c.\* 300 B.C. we get refined specimens whose face is moulded but the body hand-modelled. At PĀTALIPUTRA and SONPUR, early NBPW level, the 'dancing girls' modelled in the round with fluttering skirts seem to have Hellenistic influence. They seem to be secular in function and were meant perhaps to decorate palatial mansions. The BUXAR female figurines with foreign facial features, exquisite head-dress and vegetal and floral decoration on the head and ears seem to be associated with the fertility or vegetation cult. An important centre in the n., MATHURA, has steatopygous female figurines produced in grey terracotta with stumpy limbs, a well-marked navel and a girdle. Male figurines whose function is not known are also reported from PĀTALIPUTRA, MATHURA, SONKH, etc. ### [v1.c22.s2.8](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c22.s2.8) In the Megalithic \[4.17.9\] burials at KADATTUR six human figurines have been found as grave goods. They seem to represent a foreign ethnic type, probably Scythian, and are assignable to the 1st-2nd century A.D. A few specimens of terracottas of the early centuries of the Christian era have also been reported from other Tamil Nadu sites such as KĀVERĪPAṬṬINAM, URAIYUR, KANCHIPURAM, ARIKAMEDU and TIRUKKAMBULIYAR. ### [v1.c22.s2.9](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c22.s2.9) During the 2nd and 1st centuries B.C. a large number of moulded plaques depicting human figures in relief were produced in the terracotta-making centres which flourished from Bengal to Punjab and Rajasthan. They represent both religious and secular themes. There are numerous goddesses decorated with elaborate coiffure, rich jewellery and fine or transparent costume. Male figures accompany the goddess on the same plaque as at AHICCHATRĀ and CHANDRAKETUGARH or are found separately, often with musical instruments, e.g. AHICCHATRĀ, CHANDRAKETUGARH, MATHURA, etc. There are winged male figures from VAIŚĀLĪ, BALIRAJGARH, TAMLUK and KAUŚĀMBĪ. Plaques with secular themes include garden parties, wrestling, ladies decorating themselves, amorous couples, etc.—themes which townsmen appreciated. The suspension holes indicate that the plaques, both religious and secular, were meant to be hung on walls. ### [v1.c22.s2.10](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c22.s2.10) In the early centuries of the Christian era, with the flourishing of the Indo-Roman trade and the urbanization of the s. regions, we get hollow terracottas and kaolin figurines produced out of two moulds at PAITHAN, TER, BHOKARDAN, NEVASA, KOLHAPUR, KONDĀPUR, YELLESWARAM, NAGARJUNAKONDA, etc. The technique seems to have been borrowed from the Romans \[8.1\]. The themes include meticulously groomed male and female figures holding a bird and fruit. They represent a distinct ethnic type with a snub nose, thick lips, broad face and squat physiognomy. Some figurines represent Romans. A warrior with a Scythian helmet decorates a hanging lamp from TER. Plaques representing a headless nude goddess \[12.6\] of the personified \*yoni\* type sitting with legs raised (\*uttāna-pāda\*) have been found at several sites in Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra and Gujarat as well as in some n. sites in the Yamuna valley. ### [v1.c22.s2.11](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c22.s2.11) Fig. 53. Terracotta animal figurines: 1-4, 8 bull, respectively from Mohenjo-daro, Surkotada, Gilund, Kayatha and Ter; 5, incised ram figurine, Bhagwanpura; 6, nagini, Champa; 7, toycart, Chandraketugarh ### [v1.c22.s2.12](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c22.s2.12) Fig. 54. Terracotta human figurines; 1, female figure, Mohenjo-daro; 2, figure on storage jar, Nevasa; 3, female figurine, Lal Qila; 4, female figure, Mathura; 5, male figurine, Nevasa ### [v1.c22.s2.13](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c22.s2.13) In n. India during the early centuries of the Christian era both hand-modelled and moulded human figurines were produced. The former mode was more popular particularly in making portrait-like heads found at many sites of the Ganga-Yamuna valley of which MATHURA, KAUŚĀMBĪ and BHITA have produced fine specimens. These heads represent a variety of ethnic types. New gods and goddesses appeared, viz. Durgā Mahiṣāsuramardinī, Viṣṇu, Kārttikeya, Buddha, etc. Parthian influence is seen in female figurines and drummers sitting on votive tanks \[12.11\]. ### [v1.c22.s2.14](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c22.s2.14) During the period 300 to 650, several n. Indian sites such as RAJGHAT, BHITARI, BHITA, MATHURA, AHICCHATRĀ, VAIŚĀLĪ, etc., had figurines of finely levigated clay, neatly produced out of moulds and often painted. These represent men, women, couples, mother and child, Śiva and Pārvatī, dwarfs, etc., all of which have standardized features but varieties of hair-styles. Miniature moulded plaques depict interesting compositions of which a girl on the swing from RAGHAT⁴ is noteworthy. ### [v1.c22.s2.15](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c22.s2.15) After 650 portable human figurines were produced in small numbers at sites like AHICCHATRĀ, ATRANJIKHERA, KANAUJ, etc., which show a continuation of some types of the previous period. Between 850 and 1100 we get at AHICCHATRĀ some different types of terracottas representing \*mallas\* (wrestlers), dagger-shaped crude figurines and thin plaques of deities and \*sattī-sattā\* (a couple of which the female became a \*satī\*) \[12.7\]. The last are also seen at KASHIPUR, KANAUJ, etc., and seem to have been used as votive offerings near \*satī\* stones. ### [v1.c22.s2.16](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c22.s2.16) For bibliography see 17.1. For sites see respective entries in vol. II.—D. DESAI ## Linked texts (48) - [Harappā](https://indike.org/pramana/inp.site.harappa) - [Mohenjo-daro](https://indike.org/pramana/inp.site.mohenjo-daro) - [Lothal](https://indike.org/pramana/inp.site.lothal) - [Kālībangan](https://indike.org/pramana/inp.site.kalibangan) - [Surkotada](https://indike.org/pramana/inp.site.surkotada) - [Alamgirpur](https://indike.org/pramana/inp.site.alamgirpur) - [Sonkh](https://indike.org/pramana/inp.site.sonkh) - [Ahicchatra](https://indike.org/pramana/inp.site.ahichchhatra) - [Hastināpura](https://indike.org/pramana/inp.site.hastinapura) - [Kauśāmbī](https://indike.org/pramana/inp.site.kausambi) - [Atranjikhera](https://indike.org/pramana/inp.site.atranjikhera) - [Vaiśālī](https://indike.org/pramana/inp.site.vaisali) - [Pāṭaliputra](https://indike.org/pramana/inp.site.pataliputra) - [Chandraketugarh](https://indike.org/pramana/inp.site.chandraketugarh) - [Nevasa](https://indike.org/pramana/inp.site.nevasa) - [Nāgārjunakoṇḍa](https://indike.org/pramana/inp.site.nagarjunakonda) - [Chirand](https://indike.org/pramana/inp.site.chirand) - [Gilund](https://indike.org/pramana/inp.site.gilund) - [Navdatoli](https://indike.org/pramana/inp.site.navdatoli) - [Inamgaon](https://indike.org/pramana/inp.site.inamgaon) - [Kāyathā](https://indike.org/pramana/inp.site.kayatha) - [Sanganakallu](https://indike.org/pramana/inp.site.sanganakallu) - [Prakash](https://indike.org/pramana/inp.site.prakash) - [Tamluk](https://indike.org/pramana/inp.site.tamluk) - [Sonpur](https://indike.org/pramana/inp.site.sonpur) - [Antichak](https://indike.org/pramana/inp.site.antichak) - [Tirukkambuliyur](https://indike.org/pramana/inp.site.tirukkambuliyur) - [Balirajgarh](https://indike.org/pramana/inp.site.balirajgarh) - [Kanchipuram](https://indike.org/pramana/inp.site.kanchipuram) - [Rajbadi-danga (Jadupur)](https://indike.org/pramana/inp.site.rajbadi-danga-jadupur) - [Buxar](https://indike.org/pramana/inp.site.buxar) - [Ambkheri](https://indike.org/pramana/inp.site.ambkheri) - [Paiyampalli](https://indike.org/pramana/inp.site.paiyampalli) - [Uṟaiyūr](https://indike.org/pramana/inp.site.uraiyur) - [Masaon](https://indike.org/pramana/inp.site.masaon) - [Khalaua](https://indike.org/pramana/inp.site.khalaua) - [Kashipur](https://indike.org/pramana/inp.site.kashipur) - [Oriup](https://indike.org/pramana/inp.site.oriup) - [Lal Qila](https://indike.org/pramana/inp.site.lal-qila) - [Bhitari](https://indike.org/pramana/inp.site.bhitari) - [Jakhera](https://indike.org/pramana/inp.site.jakhera) - [Purana Qila](https://indike.org/pramana/inp.site.purana-qila) - [Bhokardan](https://indike.org/pramana/inp.site.bhokardan) - [Kulli](https://indike.org/pramana/inp.site.kulli) - [Śaṅkaram](https://indike.org/pramana/inp.site.sankaram) - [Bhita](https://indike.org/pramana/inp.site.bhita) - [Prahladpur](https://indike.org/pramana/inp.site.prahladpur) - [Kadattur](https://indike.org/pramana/inp.site.kadattur) --- Source: [https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c22](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c22) · Pramāṇa