[Pramāṇa](https://indike.org/pramana/) › [Studies](https://indike.org/pramana/ins) › [Reference works](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference) › [An Encyclopaedia of Indian Archaeology](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989) › v1.c7.s2 # An Encyclopaedia of Indian Archaeology v1.c7.s2: 2.2 Cereals An Encyclopaedia of Indian Archaeology v1.c7.s2 - **Language:** English ### 2.2 Cereals ### [v1.c7.s2.1](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c7.s2.1) \*2.2.1 Eleusine coracana\* (finger millet, \*ragi\*). Found at HALLUR, PAIYAMPALLI (Neolithic) \[4.6\]; SURKOTADA (Harappa \[4.9\]); BHOKARDAN, NEVASA (early historical). These constitute the only world records, but it is believed that the cereal originated in Africa, where several wild and weedy forms, including \*E. africana\*, its immediate ancestor, are found. The Indian wild \*E. indica\* is genetically incompatible to be its ancestor. ### [v1.c7.s2.2](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c7.s2.2) \*2.2.2 Hordeum vulgare\* (barley). CHIRAND (Neolithic); Harappa, KALIBANGAN, Mohenjo-daro (Harappa, at the second site the grains being small-sized owing to growth on poor sandy soil); ATRANJIKHERA (OCW \[4.12\] and later); INAMGAON, NAVDATOLI (Chalcolithic); NEVASA, NOH, TER (early historical). Two kinds, \*H. vulgare\* var. \*nudum\* (Mohenjo-daro) and \*H. vulgare\* var. \*hexastichum\* (Chanhu-daro), have been identified. ### [v1.c7.s2.3](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c7.s2.3) The distribution in time and space shows its earliest occurrence in w. parts of the subcontinent during the Harappa period \[4.9\], later in Ganga plains at ATRANJIKHERA and CHIRAND. Subsequent to the decline of the Harappa culture it diffused into the Deccan through the Ganga plains. The world's earliest records of cultivated barley, dated 8000 B.C., come from w. Asia, where its wild progenitor is also known. ### [v1.c7.s2.4](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c7.s2.4) \*2.2.3 Oryza\* (rice). VAIDYAPUR, CHIRAND (¹⁴C dates erratic), KOLDIHAWA (where the overlying Chalcolithic \[4.14\] has ¹⁴C date of 4530 B.C.) and ORIUP (all Neolithic); LOTHAL, RANGPUR (Harappa); ATRANJIKHERA (OCW); AHAR, MAHISDAL, NAVDATOLI, Phase II (Chalcolithic); AMBARI, INAMGAON, NOH, PANDU RAJAR DHIBI, ROPAR, SONPUR (first half of 1st millennium B.C.); BHOKARDAN, HASTINĀPURA, KHOKRAKOT, KAUṆḌINYAPURA, NAGDA, PĀṬALIPUTRA, PAUNAR, PAUNI, PURANA QILA, RAJGIR, TER, UJJAIN (Garh Kālikā) (second half of same millennium); Kangra fort, KOLHAPUR, NEVASA, RANGMAHAL, TER (still later). In the lower Deccan the first occurrence is at HALLUR (Iron Age), followed in s. India by KUNNATTUR (Megalithic), Pariyapuram (early centuries A.D.). The records show its oldest occurrence in the Ganga plains, its subsequent diffusion towards w. and e. and from w. to c. India, Saurashtra and Maharashtra via e. Rajasthan. \[But see 4.6.4.\] Imprints on pottery suggest profuse use of grains and chaff as binding material in clay before firing. ### [v1.c7.s2.5](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c7.s2.5) Whether the CHIRAND specimen is wild or cultivated is not certain. While phases of domestication of wild rice are still obscure, the cereal was used widely since Neolithic times in the Ganga plains (but restrictedly in the barley-based economy at Neolithic CHIRAND) and e. Rajasthan. It penetrated into the barley-wheat-based economy in c. India (NAVDATOLI) and Maharashtra in or after 1300 B.C. and the millet-based economy of s. India in 1000 B.C. It was unknown to the Harappans except in Gujarat (LOTHAL, RANGPUR). ### [v1.c7.s2.6](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c7.s2.6) It remains undetermined if the oldest record from Thailand (Non Nok Tha, 4000 B.C., dates erratic) was wild or cultivated. A Chinese record from Ch'ing-p'u Prefecture of Kiangsu Province is dated 3995±105 B.C by bristle-cone pine dating. \[The specimen has been dated 3395±105 B.C. by ¹⁴C method. The oldest specimen, dated between 5895±115 and 6310±100 B.P. by ¹⁴C method, comes from Yu-yao Prefecture of Chekiang Province. Information from Dr T.T. Chang of International Rice Res. Inst.\] The cereal was possibly domesticated independently in several countries including the Ganga plains, s. China and s.-e. Asia. Man's acquaintance with wild rices apparently predates domestication as suggested by imprints on potsherds. Grains of wild perennial rices are still gathered by aboriginal tribes in Jaipur tract of Orissa. Wild paddy (\*tinni\*, \*uri\*, \*jhara\*, \*deobhat\*) is gathered and eaten by Brahmins on fast days. ### [v1.c7.s2.7](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c7.s2.7) \*2.2.4 Pennisetum typhoideum\* (pearl millet, \*bajra\*). RANGPUR (Harappa); AHAR² (Chalcolithic); HALLUR (Iron Age); NEVASA, TER (early historical, at the former in Indo-Roman levels). Suited to arid climates, its original home is believed to be tropical Africa, where record dated 1250 B.C. is known from Neolithic Naghez. ### [v1.c7.s2.8](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c7.s2.8) 2.2.5 \*Sorghum\* (jowar). Mohenjo-daro (Harappa, possibly familiarity); AHAR², INAMGAON (Chalcolithic); BHATKULI, NEVASA, PAUNAR (early and late historical). The earlier records are comparable to \*S. vulgare\*, an African domesticate, believed to have diffused here. ### [v1.c7.s2.9](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c7.s2.9) 2.2.6 \*Triticum\* (wheat). BURZAHOM, CHIRAND (Neolithic, at the former site indirect evidence coming from seeds of forage plants); Harappa, KALIBANGAN, Mohenjo-daro (Harappa); ATRANJIKHERA (OCW); INAMGAON, KAYATHA, NAVDATOLI, SONGAON (Chalcolithic); BHOKARDAN, NEVASA, TER (early to late historical). Records show its earliest occurrence in w. part of the subcontinent during the Harappa period, somewhat later at CHIRAND and still later in the upper Ganga plains (ATRANJIKHERA). Subsequent to the decline of the Harappa it spread through the Ganga plains to c. India and thence to the Deccan. ### [v1.c7.s2.10](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c7.s2.10) The Indian records are highly evolved hexaploid wheats with a prolonged history of domestication and evolution in Jarmo-Jericho and w. Iran, predating the Indian records by 4000 to 5000 years. The highly drought-resistant shot wheat, \*T. sphaerococcum\*, originated in n.-w. part of the Indian subcontinent through mutation or deletion of small block of genes of \*T. aestivum\*. The region between the Himalayas and Hindu Kush is also believed to be the original home of wheat, as wild progenitors still occur there. It probably arrived in the subcontinent via s.-e. Afghanistan (Mundigak, Pd II, c. 3000 B.C.). ### [v1.c7.s2.11](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c7.s2.11) 2.2.7 \*Zea Mays\* (maize, \*makka\*). Imprints found at KAUNḌINYAPURA in c. 1435. Primitive (living fossil) maize in Sikkim is cytologically different from American or Carribean maize, supporting its pre-Columbian occurrence in the subcontinent, though perhaps it was reintroduced by the Arabs. ## Linked texts (32) - [Harappā](https://indike.org/pramana/inp.site.harappa) - [Mohenjo-daro](https://indike.org/pramana/inp.site.mohenjo-daro) - [Lothal](https://indike.org/pramana/inp.site.lothal) - [Kālībangan](https://indike.org/pramana/inp.site.kalibangan) - [Chanhu-daro](https://indike.org/pramana/inp.site.chanhu-daro) - [Surkotada](https://indike.org/pramana/inp.site.surkotada) - [Rangpur](https://indike.org/pramana/inp.site.rangpur) - [Mundigak](https://indike.org/pramana/inp.site.mundigak) - [Hastināpura](https://indike.org/pramana/inp.site.hastinapura) - [Atranjikhera](https://indike.org/pramana/inp.site.atranjikhera) - [Pāṭaliputra](https://indike.org/pramana/inp.site.pataliputra) - [Nevasa](https://indike.org/pramana/inp.site.nevasa) - [Burzahom](https://indike.org/pramana/inp.site.burzahom) - [Chirand](https://indike.org/pramana/inp.site.chirand) - [Navdatoli](https://indike.org/pramana/inp.site.navdatoli) - [Inamgaon](https://indike.org/pramana/inp.site.inamgaon) - [Kāyathā](https://indike.org/pramana/inp.site.kayatha) - [Nagda](https://indike.org/pramana/inp.site.nagda) - [Kunnattur](https://indike.org/pramana/inp.site.kunnattur) - [Sonpur](https://indike.org/pramana/inp.site.sonpur) - [Noh](https://indike.org/pramana/inp.site.noh) - [Mahisdal](https://indike.org/pramana/inp.site.mahisdal) - [Paiyampalli](https://indike.org/pramana/inp.site.paiyampalli) - [Oriup](https://indike.org/pramana/inp.site.oriup) - [Koldihawa](https://indike.org/pramana/inp.site.koldihawa) - [Purana Qila](https://indike.org/pramana/inp.site.purana-qila) - [Pandu Rajar Dhibi](https://indike.org/pramana/inp.site.pandu-rajar-dhibi) - [Ambari](https://indike.org/pramana/inp.site.ambari) - [Pauni](https://indike.org/pramana/inp.site.pauni) - [Bhokardan](https://indike.org/pramana/inp.site.bhokardan) - [Khokra-kot](https://indike.org/pramana/inp.site.khokra-kot) - [Rajgiri](https://indike.org/pramana/inp.site.rajgiri) --- Source: [https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c7.s2](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.ghosh-1989.v1.c7.s2) · Pramāṇa