An Encyclopaedia of Indian Archaeology v1.c8.s1.t1: 3.1.3 Die-struck
An Encyclopaedia of Indian Archaeology v1.c8.s1.t1
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3.1.3 Die-struck
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The earliest uninscribed die-struck coins, generally in copper, with a device on only one side of the coin have been assigned to the end of the 4th century B.C. Later the devices were impressed on both sides of the coins. The finest of these were struck in Gandhāra—those bearing a lion on the obverse and an elephant on the reverse. Later on legends were introduced on this series. The double-die coins issued by the Pañcāla rulers and those of Kauśāmbī and Mathurā and the Negama coins of Taxila bear legends.
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The Greeks introduced the splendid series of portrait coinage—a type followed by Indian moneyers for a number of centuries. They struck in silver and copper with bilingual inscriptions and types that were partly Greek and partly Indian. Their square coppers are met with in great abundance. Parallel to the purely Indo-Greek series are the coins of the Śakas and the Parthians. Many of their coin types are remarkable for a profusion of privy marks that should eventually permit a much closer dating and localization than is at present possible. The coins of the W. Kṣatrapas are chiefly important because on them first appear dates in the Śaka era which thenceforward provides a much firmer basis for chronology. The most remarkable coin series of the early centuries A.D. are those of the Kushans and the Guptas. The Kushans struck an abundance of gold coins (their predecessors had minted almost exclusively in silver and copper), some of them concave in form, with a great variety of Indian, Greek and Iranian deities as types. The Kushans likewise struck coppers in large quantities to provide small change for minor transactions. This shows the penetration of money economy into towns and possibly into rural areas. The gold coinage of the Guptas is abundant and purely Indian but extremely varied in type, besides being of high artistic quality. The king is shown in an infinity of roles and Hindu deities appear as a matter of course. The legends betray a tendency to transform the coins into something not far removed from commemorative medals. The Guptas issued some silver to serve in W. India only and very little copper. This could be due to the emergence of a self-sufficient village economy in mid-India and the decline set in trade and commerce and consequently in money economy in the countryside.
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A major difficulty in the study of die-struck techniques is the lack of actual coin dies. However, using the analogy of ancient Indian seals [3.2] and ancient and medieval dies of the W. it is possible to reconstruct the ancient Indian technique in outline. The dies used would have been hardened bronze, iron or steel. The upper die must have been a cylindrical bar having at the end a device cut in intaglio. The lower die likewise must have been a bar but more complicated in shape. It ended below in a point so that it could be forced into a block of wood and would stay in position without the hammer driving it further and further in. The die face, bearing in intaglio, a mirror image of the design which was ultimately seen on one of the two surfaces of the coin, would have been made with the help of graving tools and punches, the former used for die-cutting and the latter for die-sinking. The dies seem usually to have been cut freehand and working by eye alone may have been the general practice. A complicated pattern in high relief, like that on many Gupta gold coins, would involve many hours of work, whereas a less complicated design could be engraved in a matter of minutes. It is possible that most dies were made directly, so that each one differed from its fellows slightly, but hubbed and cast dies were sometimes made. In a large mint operating under an imperial authority die-sinking would be entrusted to one or more experts. Sometimes dies made at a central mint would have been distributed to provincial mints. Dies once made could be repaired and altered. The type and inscription on a worn-out die could be recut, the outlines of the design and the letter being sharpened by the use of a graving tool; a cracked die would be strengthened and in part repaired. Since the upper die wears out more quickly than the lower one it is possible that they were supplied in sets rather than in pairs, two or more upper dies being associated with each lower one. When dies wore out or when the coin type was replaced by another, the old dies would be formally defaced, as seals were defaced on the death of their owners. Ultimately the old dies would be melted down.
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A necessary preliminary to the making of the coin blanks was the preparation of an alloy. How the blanks were made would depend upon the ultimate form of the coin. The blanks for the large and heavy coins were usually cast in a globular form, which explains the thickness and rounded edges of the coins. Others were cast in terracotta moulds, either individually or in groups. An alternative method would be to cast the metal in long strips and cut them up with chisels into pieces of appropriate size, which were then grasped with tongs, re-heated and worked by hammering into circular discs. The blanks were then treated with acids. After this the weights of individual pieces were adjusted to conform with the mint prescriptions, which in the case of gold and silver coins meant individual testing blank by blank. Next the blanks were struck either hot or cold, both methods with advantages and disadvantages. Finally they were submitted for verification and then put in circulation.