[Pramāṇa](https://indike.org/pramana/) › [Studies](https://indike.org/pramana/ins) › [Reference works](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference) › [Vedic Index of Names and Subjects](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.macdonell-keith-1912) › v1 # Vedic Index of Names and Subjects v1: Volume 1 Vedic Index of Names and Subjects v1 - **Language:** English ## Contents - [v1.c1 Vedic Index of Names and Subjects](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.macdonell-keith-1912.v1.c1) — 22 parts - [v1.c2 Preface](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.macdonell-keith-1912.v1.c2) — 23 parts - [v1.c3 Order of the Sanskrit Alphabet](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.macdonell-keith-1912.v1.c3) — 890 parts ### Volume 1 ### Vedic Index of Names and Subjects ### [v1.c1.1](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.macdonell-keith-1912.v1.c1.1) WORKS BY THE SAME AUTHORS ### [v1.c1.2](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.macdonell-keith-1912.v1.c1.2) I. BY PROF. MACDONELL. KÂTYÂYANA'S SARVÂNUKRAMAṆĪ OF THE RIGVEDA. With Extracts from Shaḍgurusishya's Commentary. (Anecdota Oxoniensia: Aryan Series.) Small 4to., pp. xxiv+224. Clarendon Press, Oxford. 1886. ### [v1.c1.3](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.macdonell-keith-1912.v1.c1.3) A SANSKRIT-ENGLISH DICTIONARY: being a Practical Handbook, with Transliteration, Accentuation, and Etymological Analysis throughout. 4to., pp. xii+384. Longmans, Green & Co., London. 1892. ### [v1.c1.4](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.macdonell-keith-1912.v1.c1.4) VEDIC MYTHOLOGY. Royal 8vo., pp. 189. Karl J. Trübner, Strassburg. 1897. ### [v1.c1.5](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.macdonell-keith-1912.v1.c1.5) A HISTORY OF SANSKRIT LITERATURE. Large crown 8vo., pp. viii+472. Heinemann, London. 1900. ### [v1.c1.6](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.macdonell-keith-1912.v1.c1.6) THE BRHAD-DEVATĀ. A Summary of the Deities and Myths of the Rigveda. Critically edited in the original Sanskrit and Translated into English. 2 vols., royal 8vo., pp. xxxvi+198; xvi+334. Harvard University. 1904. ### [v1.c1.7](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.macdonell-keith-1912.v1.c1.7) VEDIC GRAMMAR. Royal 8vo., pp. 456. Karl J. Trübner, Strassburg. 1910. ### [v1.c1.8](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.macdonell-keith-1912.v1.c1.8) A SANSKRIT GRAMMAR FOR BEGINNERS. Second Edition, Revised and Enlarged. Crown 8vo., pp. xvi+264. Longmans, Green & Co., London. 1911. ### [v1.c1.9](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.macdonell-keith-1912.v1.c1.9) II. BY DR. KEITH. CATALOGUE OF SANSKRIT AND PRĀKRIT MANUSCRIPTS IN THE INDIAN INSTITUTE LIBRARY. Clarendon Press, Oxford. 1903. ### [v1.c1.10](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.macdonell-keith-1912.v1.c1.10) CATALOGUE OF SANSKRIT MANUSCRIPTS IN THE BODLEIAN LIBRARY. Vol. II. (begun by Prof. Winternitz). Clarendon Press, Oxford. 1905. ### [v1.c1.11](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.macdonell-keith-1912.v1.c1.11) CATALOGUE OF SANSKRIT MANUSCRIPTS IN THE BODLEIAN LIBRARY. Appendix to Vol. I. (Th. Aufrecht's Catalogue). Clarendon Press, Oxford. 1909. ### [v1.c1.12](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.macdonell-keith-1912.v1.c1.12) CATALOGUE OF PRĀKRIT MANUSCRIPTS IN THE BODLEIAN LIBRARY. Clarendon Press, Oxford. 1911. ### [v1.c1.13](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.macdonell-keith-1912.v1.c1.13) ŚĀNKHĀYANA ĀRAṆYAKA, with an Appendix on the Mahāvrata. Royal Asiatic Society (Oriental Translation Fund, Vol. XVIII.). London. 1908. ### [v1.c1.14](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.macdonell-keith-1912.v1.c1.14) AITAREYA ĀRAṆYAKA. Edited with Introduction, Translation, Notes, Indexes, and Appendix containing the portion hitherto unpublished of the Śānkhāyana Āraṇyaka. Clarendon Press. 1909. ### [v1.c1.15](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.macdonell-keith-1912.v1.c1.15) INDIAN TEXTS SERIES ### [v1.c1.16](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.macdonell-keith-1912.v1.c1.16) VEDIC INDEX ### [v1.c1.17](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.macdonell-keith-1912.v1.c1.17) OF NAMES AND SUBJECTS ### [v1.c1.18](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.macdonell-keith-1912.v1.c1.18) BY ARTHUR ANTHONY MACDONELL, M.A., PH.D. BODEN PROFESSOR OF SANSKRIT IN THE UNIVERSITY OF OXFORD; FELLOW OF BALLIOL COLLEGE; FELLOW OF THE BRITISH ACADEMY ### [v1.c1.19](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.macdonell-keith-1912.v1.c1.19) AND ARTHUR BERRIEDALE KEITH, M.A., D.C.L. FORMERLY SCHOLAR OF BALLIOL COLLEGE AND BODEN SANSKRIT SCHOLAR; SOMETIME ACTING DEPUTY PROFESSOR OF SANSKRIT IN THE UNIVERSITY OF OXFORD ### [v1.c1.20](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.macdonell-keith-1912.v1.c1.20) VOL. I ### [v1.c1.21](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.macdonell-keith-1912.v1.c1.21) LONDON JOHN MURRAY, ALBEMARLE STREET, W. PUBLISHED FOR THE GOVERNMENT OF INDIA ### [v1.c1.22](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.macdonell-keith-1912.v1.c1.22) Cyber Nationalism Bangla Looking The Ta Tibet's Lieuten ### Preface ### [v1.c2.1](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.macdonell-keith-1912.v1.c2.1) Inception and Progress of the Book.—The origination of the present work was due to Professor T. W. Rhys Davids at the time when, several years ago, he was appointed general editor of the Indian Text Series to be published under the auspices of the Secretary of State for India. He then asked me to contribute a work supplying the historical material, as represented by proper names, to be found in the earliest period of Indian literature antecedent to the rise of Buddhism towards the close of the sixth century B.C. Since the subject came within the range of my special studies and moreover appeared to be one of considerable importance, I agreed to the proposal. But I did so with hesitation, because my leisure for a long time to come was already mortgaged by two works which involved much labour and on which I was already engaged. I soon came to the conclusion that till those works—the \*Br̥haddevatā\* and the \*Vedic Grammar\*—were out of my hands, I could spare no time for the third book, the mere preparation, to say nothing of the publication, of which would thus have to be postponed for several years. Another hindrance would be caused by the tour of study and research in India which I contemplated making at the earliest opportunity. With the prospect of these long delays before me, I was tempted to throw up a task that seemed to have been rashly undertaken. At the same time, I was reluctant either to abandon or to put off indefinitely what I had once begun. It also seemed a pity to relinquish an enterprise which, if properly carried out, promised to be very useful. ### [v1.c2.2](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.macdonell-keith-1912.v1.c2.2) Under these circumstances, collaboration appeared the only way out of the difficulty. I bethought myself of Mr. A. B. Keith, who, as Boden Sanskrit scholar, had been my pupil for four years, and who had already assisted me since 1899, not only by reading the proofs of, but by suggesting improvements in, my \*History of Sanskrit Literature\* and my \*Sanskrit Grammar for Beginners\*, as well as my edition of the \*Br̥haddevatā\*, then commencing to be printed. I accordingly asked him if he had the time and inclination to collaborate with me in the proposed work by at once beginning to collect material for it. He consented without hesitation, and the Secretary of State for India readily sanctioned this modification of the arrangements already made. There was no other man to whom I could have entrusted with such complete confidence the task of carrying out this preliminary work accurately and rapidly. ### [v1.c2.3](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.macdonell-keith-1912.v1.c2.3) In 1909, about a year after my return from India, Mr. Keith supplied me with a considerable part of his collectanea, while my \*Vedic Grammar\* was still passing through the press. The regular printing did not begin till early in 1910, about the time when that work was published. The interval was taken up with preparing a sufficient amount of ‘copy’ for the printer, as well as with settling various questions of arrangement and typography. ### [v1.c2.4](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.macdonell-keith-1912.v1.c2.4) Mode of Collaboration.—Our respective shares in the production of the book are, generally stated, as follows: Dr. Keith has collected the material, while I have acted chiefly as an editor, planning the scope of the work, arranging the distribution of text and notes, selecting the type to be used, cutting out, adding to or modifying the matter, weighing the evidence for different interpretations and conclusions, and deciding as to which view, in case of possible alternatives, should be preferred. Having written up in its final form every article contained in the book, I accept the responsibility for every statement and opinion expressed in it. I do not think that Dr. Keith and I have disagreed upon any material point. When we have differed on minor questions, he has deferred to my judgment, though his view may have been right just as often as mine. Where erroneous conclusions have been drawn, the reader will be helped to correct them by the method I have pursued of supplying from the original texts the evidence on which such conclusions are based. ### [v1.c2.5](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.macdonell-keith-1912.v1.c2.5) Scope of the Work.—At the outset it was proposed, as I have already stated, that the book should furnish the historical material in Vedic literature as represented by proper names. As soon, however, as I began to examine more carefully the historical material thus available, I became convinced that restriction to proper names would result in a harvest too meagre to deserve being gathered in the form of a book. It seemed essential to collect all the historical matter accessible to us in the earliest literary documents of India, and thus to furnish a conspectus of the most ancient phase of Āryan civilization that can be realized by direct evidence. If properly and thoroughly treated this matter would, I felt sure, yield a book of genuine value, a comprehensive work on Vedic antiquities; for it would include all the information that can be extracted from Vedic literature on such topics as agriculture, astronomy, burial, caste, clothing, crime, diseases, economic conditions, food and drink, gambling, kingship, law and justice, marriage, morality, occupations, polyandry and polygamy, the position of women, usury, village communities, war, wedding ceremonies, widow burning, witchcraft, and many others. The proper names would embrace not only persons, tribes, and peoples, but also mountains, rivers, and countries. The geographical distribution of the Vedic population would thus also be presented. ### [v1.c2.6](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.macdonell-keith-1912.v1.c2.6) From the historical data amplified in this way I proposed, however, to exclude matter belonging to the domain of religion, which it seemed better to relegate to a separate work. At the same time it soon became clear that certain aspects of religious activity inseparably connected with the social and political life of the age would have to be admitted, such as the functions of the main priests and some festivals or ritual practices. Again, certain names of perhaps purely mythological figures might have to be mentioned. The evidence is occasionally insufficient to show whether a name represents an actual historical personage: a demon or a mythical hero or priest may be meant. An undoubted demon may even have to be included, such as the one that is supposed to cause eclipses, because he belongs to the domain of primitive astronomy. ### [v1.c2.7](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.macdonell-keith-1912.v1.c2.7) Chronological Limits.—The period which the book was intended to embrace had been decided at the outset as that of the Vedas and Brāhmaṇas. The upper limit here is the date of the oldest hymns of the Rigveda. That date is uncertain, but my conviction (set forth in my \*History of Sanskrit Literature\*, pp. 11-12) that it is not much earlier than 1200 B.C. still remains unshaken. It does not appear to me to be in the slightest degree invalidated by Professor Hugo Winckler’s discoveries at Boghaz-köi, in Asia Minor, in the year 1907. That scholar has deciphered, in an inscription of about 1400 B.C. found there, the names of certain deities as \*mi-it-ra\*, \*uru-w-na\*, \*in-da-ra\*, and \*na-ša-at-ti-ia\*, which correspond to those of the important Vedic gods Mitra, Varuṇa, Indra, and Nāsatya. Three inferences may be drawn from the occurrence of these names. They may have been derived from Vedic India; in that case the Vedic religion must have flourished in India considerably before 1400 B.C., even though the hymns that have come down to us may not have been composed before that date. But that these names should have travelled all the way from India to Asia Minor is a hypothesis so highly improbable that it may be dismissed. Secondly, the names may belong to the early Iranian period after the Iranians had separated from the Indians, but before their language had reached the phonetic stage of the Avesta. This seems the most probable theory, both chronologically and geographically. It implies only that the Indian branch had separated from the Iranian, not that it had already entered India. Lastly, the names, being common to the Iranian and Indian languages, might be assigned to the Indo-Iranian period when the two branches were still one people living in Iran. This theory would still allow two centuries for separation, migration to India, and the commencement of Vedic literature in the north-west of India. ### [v1.c2.8](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.macdonell-keith-1912.v1.c2.8) The lower limit of the Vedic period is the epoch of the rise and spread of Buddhism, or, roughly, 500 B.C. The Brāhmaṇa literature to be exploited was assumed to be undoubtedly anterior to that date. The boundary line would, however, to some extent have to be overstepped by drawing on the Sūtras for evidence where the Vedas and Brāhmaṇas fail. But though the Sūtras are roughly contemporaneous with the first three centuries of Buddhism, they are practically an epitome of the practices of the Brāhmaṇa period, and are thus often of great value in illustration or corroboration of the facts of that period. They are also important as representing the Brahminical evidence for those three centuries, especially as it is somewhat uncertain how far even the earliest Buddhist literary sources go back in an authentic form to the three centuries following the death of Buddha. Names and practices not referred to before the Sūtras were, however, to be mentioned only incidentally if at all: the few cases to the contrary that actually occur are not real exceptions, because they are derived from Vedic verses quoted in Sūtras, or from Brāhmaṇa parts of Sūtras such as Baudhāyana. ### [v1.c2.9](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.macdonell-keith-1912.v1.c2.9) Method Pursued.—Such was the scope of the work on which I finally decided before it was begun, and the plan has been adhered to in its execution as regards the contents. The manner in which those contents were to be presented was the next question to be settled and acted upon. Though both Dr. Keith and myself are familiar with the literature of the Vedic period from which the facts collected in these two volumes are drawn, and the mutual check exercised by two workers sifting the same material acts as a safeguard, it is nevertheless not always possible to exclude the risk of error or unconscious bias in estimating evidence often obscure and doubtful. I have, therefore, throughout attached great importance to stating not only the evidence of the texts themselves from a first-hand knowledge, but also to setting forth fully the opinions of other authorities when the interpretation is uncertain. The Sanskrit scholar will thus be enabled to test without difficulty the correctness of the conclusions drawn directly from the original sources, while others will be protected from having to rely exclusively on what may possibly be one-sided views. Articles have often been illustrated by adducing parallels from the institutions of cognate Āryan nations, as that on ‘Caste’ (treated under Varṇa, ii. 427-471). I have further endeavoured to utilize, chiefly in the notes, knowledge gained from a first-hand study of the archæological remains and of the modern conditions of India. Such knowledge, acquired during my tour in 1907-08, I have found to be of great value to me both as a student and as a teacher. ### [v1.c2.10](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.macdonell-keith-1912.v1.c2.10) Arrangement.—The matter contained in these volumes is treated not in chapters, but in articles disposed in alphabetical order. That order was practically necessary when proper names only were to be included; when subjects were subsequently added to the plan, it still remained the most convenient method of arrangement. As all articles appear under Sanskrit words, the order which the latter follow is naturally that of the Sanskrit alphabet. This arrangement need, however, occasion no inconvenience to those users of the book who are unfamiliar with Sanskrit, because all the information they want can be found by reference to the full English Index at the end of Vol. ii. The Sanskrit Index, which contains, in addition to the terms representing the subjects treated, all incidental Sanskrit words occurring in the articles, is of course arranged in the Sanskrit order. For the purpose of obviating any possible inconvenience, the sequence of the Sanskrit alphabet is given on the last page of this preface. With the same end in view I ### [v1.c2.12](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.macdonell-keith-1912.v1.c2.12) have given translations or explanations of all Sanskrit words and expressions, because the latter, though generally clear to Sanskrit scholars, would be unintelligible to others. Compound Sanskrit words have been divided into their component parts by the use of hyphens. In the case of obscure or irregularly formed Sanskrit words, I have sometimes added etymological explanations, which may be useful even to the Sanskrit scholar. ### [v1.c2.13](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.macdonell-keith-1912.v1.c2.13) I have long had a rooted objection to crowding the letterpress of a book with parentheses containing a string of references or incidental explanations, because these distract the attention of the reader and interfere with his grasping the argument rapidly. I have accordingly in the present work (as in several previous ones) cleared the text of such obstructive matter, relegating references and minor explanations, illustrations, or discussions, to the notes. The sole exceptions are short references consisting of figures only, and occurring in articles of two or three lines in length. Thus, in the article ‘Kauṣārava’ (i. 194), the figures (viii. 28) are added in parentheses at the end of the line. To have made a footnote out of these figures alone would have been a pedantic and an absurd application of the general principle. ### [v1.c2.14](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.macdonell-keith-1912.v1.c2.14) The notes are placed in two columns, because this arrangement enables the reader to find them more rapidly than any other. They come at the end of, and immediately below, each article. It is only when the article is a long one extending beyond the first page that the notes do not all occupy this position. Those referring to each page are then placed at the foot of that page, and only those referring to the last page come at the end of the article (cf., e.g., i. Akṣa). ### [v1.c2.15](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.macdonell-keith-1912.v1.c2.15) The headlines are so arranged as to help the reader in finding what he wants quickly, as well as to convey the maximum of information. A glance at the inner corners at the top will show the alphabetical range of the articles occurring in any two pages, the one indicating the first word on the left page, the other the last word on the right page. The rest of the headline of each page supplies a summary of the contents of that page. I have never been able to find any rational explanation why the title of the book held in one’s hand should be printed at the top of at least half, sometimes of all, the pages it contains. How this practice can possibly assist the reader is hard to understand. ### [v1.c2.16](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.macdonell-keith-1912.v1.c2.16) Typographical Details.—Every Sanskrit word used as the title of an article is printed in thick type for the purpose of catching the eye of the reader more readily. Every such word mentioned in another article is on its first occurrence there similarly printed. This is both a simpler and a clearer way of referring to a word used in another place than the employment of parentheses and additional words or abbreviations, like ‘see’ or ‘cf.,’ which tend to distract the attention of the reader (see, e.g., Agastya). Both Sanskrit names (including titles of books) and ordinary Sanskrit terms used as English words are printed in Roman type, but then always with a capital (e.g., Purohita). Italic type is employed for Sanskrit words quoted as such, for expressions from other languages such as Latin or French, for the titles of all except Sanskrit books (e.g., Oldenberg, Buddha), and even of Sanskrit books when a particular edition is intended (thus Roth, Nirukta, but Yāska, Nirukta). English words are italicized only when in long articles the titles of subdivisions are given. All these uses of italics will be found exemplified in the articles 2. Akṣa and 3. Akṣa. ### [v1.c2.17](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.macdonell-keith-1912.v1.c2.17) As regards numerals, Roman figures are employed to indicate the main divisions of a work, the subordinate parts being expressed by Arabic figures. Thus ‘Rigveda, ii. 3, 5,’ means ‘book 2, hymn 3, verse 5.’ The volume, on the other hand, is referred to by an Arabic numeral, the following figure indicating the page. Thus ‘Max Müller, Ṛgveda, 2, 135’ means ‘volume 2 of Max Müller’s edition of the Rigveda, page 135.’ ### [v1.c2.18](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.macdonell-keith-1912.v1.c2.18) I have avoided abbreviating the titles of books or journals even when they occur often, or are mentioned in the notes only. Contracted titles are as a rule intelligible to the general reader only by reference to an explanatory list appearing at the beginning or the end of a book. When a work is written consecutively, such an abbreviation can be looked up on its first occurrence, and as it is usually met with again at short intervals its explanation will be remembered. But in a book arranged in dictionary form, the occurrence of abridged titles becomes irksome to the reader because he meets them at any part of the book he opens, and often many at the same time; he will probably therefore be continually consulting the explanatory list. Hence I have only admitted the contractions ‘Rv.’ for Rigveda and ‘Av.’ for Atharvaveda, as these texts are constantly referred to, often several times in the same article. In some works, such as the \*Encyclopædia of Indo-Aryan Research\*, excessively contracted titles, frequently assuming the appearance of algebraic symbols, become necessary owing to the great mass of bibliographical references required. In the present work such economy of space was in no way called for. If, however, the book had been intended for the use of Sanskrit scholars only, I should certainly have shortened many titles here given in full, for there are numerous formulaic abbreviations that are familiar to all specialists. ### [v1.c2.19](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.macdonell-keith-1912.v1.c2.19) Transliteration.—The system here followed is that which has been adopted by the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland, and is generally employed elsewhere also. The chief difficulties caused to the non-scholar by this method of reproducing Sanskrit words are due, on the one hand, to the inadequacy of the Roman alphabet, which necessitates the use of diacritical marks, and, on the other, to the conventional use of two consonants in English, in certain cases, to represent a single sound, as \*ch\*, \*sh\*, \*ph\*, and \*th\*. The letter \*ṣ\* here is the equivalent of \*sh\* in ‘shun’; \*ś\* is somewhat thinner in pronunciation, like the \*ss\* in ‘session’; \*ṃ\* resembles the \*n\* in the French ‘bon’; and \*ḥ\* the German \*ch\* in ‘ach.’ The palatal \*c\* is to be sounded like the initial \*ch\* in Churchill; \*ch\* has an aspirate sound like that of the ch in the middle of the same word; ph and th are also aspirates, as in the English ‘up-hill’ and ‘ant-hill’ respectively. The vowels must all be pronounced as in Italian: short when unmarked (except e and o, which are always long), long when they have a horizontal stroke above; thus i is sounded as in ‘pin,’ ī like ee in ‘seen.’ The vowel ṛ may be pronounced like ri in ‘risk.’ ### [v1.c2.20](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.macdonell-keith-1912.v1.c2.20) The Map.—In order that the reader may be enabled to visualize in a general way the territory known to and occupied by the Vedic tribes, I have prefixed to the first volume a map of Vedic India. Here the home of the Indo-Aryans of the earliest period—that of the Rigveda—is the territory drained by the Indus river system, lying between the 35th and 28th parallel of northern latitude and between 70° and 78° eastern longitude, and corresponding roughly to the North-West Frontier Province and the Panjab of the present day. The eastern limit was probably the Yamunā, though the Ganges was already known. In the subsequent Vedic period—that of the later Vedas and of the Brāhmaṇas—the Indo-Aryan settlers gradually occupied the whole of the Ganges Valley down to the delta of that river. But the home of the fully developed culture of the Brāhmaṇas lay in the territory extending in a south-easterly direction from longitude 74° to 85°, between the confluence of the Sarasvatī and Dṛṣadvatī in the west and that of the Sadānīrā and Ganges on the east, and embracing roughly the south-eastern portion of the Panjab and the United Provinces of to-day. East of longitude 85° lay, to the north and south of the Ganges, the imperfectly Brahminized country corresponding to the modern Tirhut and Bihār, where Buddhism arose at the end of the Vedic period. ### [v1.c2.21](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.macdonell-keith-1912.v1.c2.21) I ought to warn readers against placing too much reliance on the details of this map, because it is largely conjectural owing to the lack of precise geographical statement in the texts. The student, when using it, should always refer to the evidence furnished by the articles under each name that appears on the map. The identification of many of the Vedic rivers with those of modern India is certain; but even here the exact channels in which they flowed in ancient times is doubtful. Thus the Indus, some of the Panjab rivers, and the old Sarasvatī have been shown by Raverty, in an article in the \*Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal\* for 1892, to have changed their courses considerably, even within historical times. It must be remembered that all the rivers of Vedic India traversed the alluvial plains of the north, and were, therefore, unlike the rivers of the Deccan, which flow in rocky beds, liable to constant fluctuations in their channels. Again, the Vedic tribes are nearly always mentioned so vaguely in the texts that they can only be approximately located by the rivers with which they are connected, or by the way in which their names are associated or grouped. Many such names had to be omitted altogether in the map because of the total lack of evidence for their localization. Some help may be obtained from the geographical position in the post-Vedic period of tribes mentioned in Vedic literature. But this evidence is apt to be doubtful, because the Vedic period was largely one of migration, and various tribes may then have occupied localities much farther north or west than those in which they were later permanently settled. The general evidence of the map, however uncertain many of the details may be, leaves no room for doubt as to the route by which the Āryans entered India, or as to the direction of the successive stages of the migration by which they eventually spread their civilization over the whole of the peninsula. ### [v1.c2.22](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.macdonell-keith-1912.v1.c2.22) Conclusion.—The first volume was ready for issue more than a year ago, but to publish it without the indexes, which would necessarily have to appear at the end of the second volume, seemed to me to be perfectly useless. I therefore preferred to wait till the whole book could be brought out in a complete form. As both Dr. Keith and myself have each read one proof and nearly always two revises of every sheet before it went to press, all but trivial errors and misprints ought to have been eliminated. I hope, however, that these two volumes will prove to be not only correct in form, but also valuable in matter, after our joint efforts to bring together and present their contents in a convenient and trustworthy manner. ### [v1.c2.23](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.macdonell-keith-1912.v1.c2.23) A. A. MACDONELL. ### [v1.c2.24](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.macdonell-keith-1912.v1.c2.24) OXFORD, July 18, 1912. ### Order of the Sanskrit Alphabet ### [v1.c3.1](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.macdonell-keith-1912.v1.c3.1) a ā i ī u ū ṛ ṝ ḷ; e ai o au; k kh g gh, ṅ; c ch j jh ñ; ṭ ṭh ḍ ḍh ṇ; t th d dh n; p ph b bh m; y r l v; ś ṣ s h. ### [v1.c3.2](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.macdonell-keith-1912.v1.c3.2) Amśu.—1. Name of a protégé of the Aśvins in the Rigveda.¹ 2. Dhānamjayya, pupil of Amāvāsya Śāṇḍilyāyana, according to the Vamśa Brāhmaṇa.² ### [v1.c3.3](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.macdonell-keith-1912.v1.c3.3) ¹ viii. 5, 26. \*Cf.\* Ludwig, Translation of the Rigveda, 3, 160; Hopkins, \*Journal of the American Oriental Society\*, 17, 89; Sieg, \*Die Sagenstoffe des Rgveda\*, 129, suggests that he may be identical with Khela. ### [v1.c3.4](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.macdonell-keith-1912.v1.c3.4) ² \*Indische Studien\*, 4, 373. ### [v1.c3.5](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.macdonell-keith-1912.v1.c3.5) Amhasas-pati.—This is the name of the intercalary month in the Vājasaneyi Saṃhitā (vii. 30; xxii. 31). See Māsa. ### [v1.c3.6](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.macdonell-keith-1912.v1.c3.6) Akra.—In several passages of the Rigveda¹ this word means, according to Geldner,² ‘horse.’ Roth³ suggests that ‘riding horse’ is the precise sense. \*Cf.\* Aśva. ### [v1.c3.7](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.macdonell-keith-1912.v1.c3.7) ¹ i. 143, 7; 189, 7; iii. 1, 12; iv. 6, 3; x. 77, 2. ### [v1.c3.8](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.macdonell-keith-1912.v1.c3.8) ² \*Vedische Studien\*, 1, 168, 169. ### [v1.c3.9](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.macdonell-keith-1912.v1.c3.9) ³ \*Zeitschrift der Deutschen Morgenländischen Gesellschaft\*, 48, 118. \*Cf.\* Max Müller, \*Sacred Books of the East\*, 32, 414. ### [v1.c3.10](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.macdonell-keith-1912.v1.c3.10) 1. Akṣa, ‘axle,’ is a part of a chariot often referred to in the Rigveda¹ and later. It was apparently² fastened to the body of the chariot (Kośa) by straps (akṣā-nah, lit. ‘tied to the axle,’ though this word is also³ rendered ‘horse’). The heating of the axle and the danger of its breaking were known.⁴ The part of the axle round which the nave of the wheel revolved was called Aṇi, ‘pin.’ ### [v1.c3.11](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.macdonell-keith-1912.v1.c3.11) ¹ i. 30, 14; 166, 9; iii. 53, 17; vi. 24, 3; x. 89, 4, etc. ### [v1.c3.12](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.macdonell-keith-1912.v1.c3.12) ² Zimmer, \*Altindisches Leben\*, 246. ### [v1.c3.13](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.macdonell-keith-1912.v1.c3.13) ³ Rv. x. 53, 7. \*Cf.\* Roth, St. Petersburg Dictionary, \*s.v.\* ### [v1.c3.14](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.macdonell-keith-1912.v1.c3.14) ⁴ Rv. i. 164, 13. ### [v1.c3.15](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.macdonell-keith-1912.v1.c3.15) 2. Akṣa.—This word occurs frequently, from the Rigveda onwards, both in the singular and plural, meaning ‘die’ and ‘dice.’ Dicing, along with horse-racing, was one of the main amusements of the Vedic Indian; but, despite the frequent mention of the game in the literature, there is considerable difficulty in obtaining any clear picture of the mode in which it was played. ### [v1.c3.16](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.macdonell-keith-1912.v1.c3.16) (1) \*The Material.\*—The dice appear normally to have been made of Vibhīdaka nuts. Such dice are alluded to in both the Rigveda¹ and the Atharvaveda,² hence being called ‘brown’ (\*babhru\*), and ‘born on a windy spot.’³ In the ritual game of dice at the Agnyādheya and the Rājasūya ceremonies the material of the dice is not specified, but it is possible that occasionally gold imitations of Vibhīdaka nuts were used.⁴ There is no clear trace in the Vedic literature of the later use of cowries as dice.⁵ ### [v1.c3.17](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.macdonell-keith-1912.v1.c3.17) ¹ vii. 86, 6; x. 34, 1. ### [v1.c3.18](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.macdonell-keith-1912.v1.c3.18) ² Av. Paipp. xx. 4, 6. ### [v1.c3.19](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.macdonell-keith-1912.v1.c3.19) ³ Rv. x. 34, 5; Av. vii. 114, 7; Rv. x. 34, 1. ### [v1.c3.20](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.macdonell-keith-1912.v1.c3.20) ⁴ Sāyaṇa on Taittirīya Saṃhitā, i. 8, 6, 12; Śatapatha Brāhmaṇa, v. 4, 4, 6. ### [v1.c3.21](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.macdonell-keith-1912.v1.c3.21) ⁵ Sāyaṇa, loc. cit., and on Rv. i. 41, 9; Mahīdhara on Vājasaneyi Saṃhitā, x. 28. ### [v1.c3.22](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.macdonell-keith-1912.v1.c3.22) (2) \*The Number.\*—In the Rigveda⁶ the dicer is described as ‘leader of a great horde’ (\*senānīr mahato gaṇasya\*), and in another passage⁷ the number is given as \*tri-pañcāśaḥ\*, an expression which has been variously interpreted. Ludwig,⁸ Weber,⁹ and Zimmer¹⁰ render it as fifteen, which is grammatically hardly possible. Roth¹¹ and Grassmann¹² render it as ‘consisting of fifty-three.’ Lüders¹³ takes it as ‘consisting of one hundred and fifty,’ but he points out that this may be merely a vague expression for a large number. For a small number Zimmer¹⁴ cites a reference in the Rigveda¹⁵ to one who fears ‘him who holds four’ (\*caturaś cid dadamānāt\*), but the sense of that passage is dependent on the view taken of the method of playing the game. ### [v1.c3.23](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.macdonell-keith-1912.v1.c3.23) ⁶ x. 34, 12. ### [v1.c3.24](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.macdonell-keith-1912.v1.c3.24) ⁷ x. 34, 8. ### [v1.c3.25](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.macdonell-keith-1912.v1.c3.25) ⁸ See his translation. ### [v1.c3.26](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.macdonell-keith-1912.v1.c3.26) ⁹ \*Über das Rājasūya\*, 72. ### [v1.c3.27](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.macdonell-keith-1912.v1.c3.27) ¹⁰ \*Altindisches Leben\*, 284. ### [v1.c3.28](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.macdonell-keith-1912.v1.c3.28) ¹¹ Following Sāyaṇa on Rv. x. 34, 8. ### [v1.c3.29](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.macdonell-keith-1912.v1.c3.29) ¹² In his translation. ### [v1.c3.30](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.macdonell-keith-1912.v1.c3.30) ¹³ \*Das Würfelspiel im alten Indien\*, 25. ### [v1.c3.31](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.macdonell-keith-1912.v1.c3.31) ¹⁴ \*Op. cit.\*, 283. ### [v1.c3.32](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.macdonell-keith-1912.v1.c3.32) ¹⁵ i. 41, 9. ### [v1.c3.33](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.macdonell-keith-1912.v1.c3.33) (3) \*The Method of Play.\*—In several passages of the later Samhitās and Brāhmaṇas lists are given of expressions connected with dicing. The names are Kṛta, Tretā, Dvāpara, Āskanda, and Abhibhū in the Taittirīya Saṃhitā.¹⁶ In the Vājasaneyi Saṃhitā,¹⁷ among the victims at the Puruṣamedha, the kitava is offered to the Akṣarāja, the ādinava-darśa to the Kṛta, the kalpin to the Tretā, the adhi-kalpin to the Dvāpara, the sabhā-sthāṇu to the Āskanda. The lists in the parallel version of the Taittirīya Brāhmaṇa are kitava, sabhāvin, ādinava-darśa, bahiḥ-sad, and sabhā-sthāṇu,¹⁸ and Akṣarāja, Kṛta, Tretā, Dvāpara, and Kali. From the Śatapatha Brāhmaṇa¹⁹ it appears that another name of Kali was Abhibhū, and the parallel lists in the Taittirīya and Vājasaneyi Saṃhitās suggest that Abhibhū and Akṣarāja are identical, though both appear in the late Taittirīya Brāhmaṇa list. The names of some of these throws go back even to the Rigveda and the Atharvaveda. Kali occurs in the latter,²⁰ and Lüders²¹ shows that in a considerable number of passages in the former Kṛta means a ‘throw’ (not ‘a stake’²² or ‘what is won’²³), and this sense is clearly found in the Atharvaveda.²⁴ Moreover, that there were more throws (ayāḥ) than one is proved by a passage in the Rigveda,²⁵ when the gods are compared to throws as giving or destroying wealth. ### [v1.c3.34](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.macdonell-keith-1912.v1.c3.34) ¹⁶ iv. 3, 3, I. 2. ### [v1.c3.35](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.macdonell-keith-1912.v1.c3.35) ¹⁷ xxx. 18. ### [v1.c3.36](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.macdonell-keith-1912.v1.c3.36) ¹⁸ iii. 4, 1, 16. These must be persons conversant with dicing, but the exact sense of the names is unknown. ### [v1.c3.37](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.macdonell-keith-1912.v1.c3.37) ¹⁹ v. 4, 4, 6. ### [v1.c3.38](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.macdonell-keith-1912.v1.c3.38) ²⁰ vii. 114, 1. ### [v1.c3.39](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.macdonell-keith-1912.v1.c3.39) ²¹ Op. cit., 43 et seq. ### [v1.c3.40](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.macdonell-keith-1912.v1.c3.40) ²² St. Petersburg Dictionary, s.v. ### [v1.c3.41](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.macdonell-keith-1912.v1.c3.41) ²³ Grassmann's Dictionary, s.v. ### [v1.c3.42](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.macdonell-keith-1912.v1.c3.42) ²⁴ vii. 52. See Rv. x. 42, 9 (kṛtam vicinoti); 43, 5; x. 102, 2; v. 60, 1; ix. 97, 58; i. 132, 1; x. 34, 6; i. 100, 9; viii. 19, 10. ### [v1.c3.43](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.macdonell-keith-1912.v1.c3.43) ²⁵ x. 116, 9. ### [v1.c3.44](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.macdonell-keith-1912.v1.c3.44) The nature of the throws is obscure. The St. Petersburg Dictionary conjectures that the names given above were applied either to dice marked 4, 3, 2, or 1, or to the sides of the dice so marked, and the latter interpretation is supported by some late commentators.²⁶ But there is no evidence for the former interpretation, and, as regards the latter, the shape of the Vibhīdaka nuts,²⁷ used as dice, forbids any side being properly on the top. Light is thrown on the expressions by the description of a ritual game²⁸ at the Agnyādheya and at the Rājasūya ceremonies. The details are not certain,²⁹ but it is clear that the game consisted in securing even numbers of dice, usually a number divisible by four, the Kṛta, the other three throws then being the Tretā, when three remained over after division by four; the Dvāpara, when two was the remainder; and the Kali, when one remained. If five were the dividing number, then the throw which showed no remainder was Kali, the Kṛta was that when four was left, and so on. The dice had no numerals marked on them, the only question being what was the total number of the dice themselves. ### [v1.c3.45](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.macdonell-keith-1912.v1.c3.45) ²⁶ Ānandagiri on Chāndogya Upaniṣad, iv. 1. 4; Nīlakaṇṭha on Mahābhārata, iv. 50, 24. ### [v1.c3.46](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.macdonell-keith-1912.v1.c3.46) ²⁷ Lüders, op. cit., 18. ### [v1.c3.47](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.macdonell-keith-1912.v1.c3.47) ²⁸ Baudhāyana Śrauta Sūtra, ii. 8, 9; Āpastamba Śrauta Sūtra, v. 19, 4; 20, 1, with Rudradatta's note, for the Agnyādheya. Āpastamba, xviii. 18, 16 \*et seq.\*, describes the Rājasūya game, and \*cf.\* Maitrāyaṇī Saṃhitā, iv. 4, 6; Taittirīya Brāhmaṇa, i. 7, 10, 5; Śatapatha Brāhmaṇa, v. 4, 4, 6; Kātyāyana Śrauta Sūtra, xv. 7, 5 \*et seq.\* For Kṛta as four, see Śatapatha Brāhmaṇa, xiii. 3, 2, 1; Taittirīya Brāhmaṇa, i. 5, 11, 1. ### [v1.c3.48](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.macdonell-keith-1912.v1.c3.48) ²⁹ See Caland, \*Zeitschrift der Deutschen Morgenländischen Gesellschaft\*, 62, 123 \*et seq.\* ### [v1.c3.49](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.macdonell-keith-1912.v1.c3.49) There is no reason to doubt that the game as played in the Rigveda was based on the same principle, though the details must remain doubtful. The number of dice used was certainly large,³⁰ and the reference to throwing fours,³¹ and losing by one, points to the use of the Kṛta as the winning throw. The Atharvaveda,³² on the other hand, possibly knew of the Kali as the winning throw. In one respect the ordinary game must have differed from the ritual game. In the latter the players merely pick out the number of dice required—no doubt to avoid ominous errors, such as must have happened if a real game had been played. In the secular game the dice were thrown,³³ perhaps on the principle suggested by Lüders:³⁴ the one throwing a certain number on the place of playing, and the other then throwing a number to make up with those already thrown a multiple of four or five. This theory, at any rate, accounts for the later stress laid on the power of computation in a player, as in the Nala. ### [v1.c3.50](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.macdonell-keith-1912.v1.c3.50) ³⁰ Rv. x. 34, 8. ### [v1.c3.51](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.macdonell-keith-1912.v1.c3.51) ³¹ Rv. i. 41, 9. In x. 34, 2, the loss is ascribed to \*akṣasya chaparasya\*, which confirms the explanation of Dvāpara given in Pāṇini, ii. 1, 10. ### [v1.c3.52](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.macdonell-keith-1912.v1.c3.52) ³² vii. 114, 1. ### [v1.c3.53](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.macdonell-keith-1912.v1.c3.53) ³³ Rv. x. 34, 1. 8. 9; Av. iv. 38, 3. ### [v1.c3.54](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.macdonell-keith-1912.v1.c3.54) ³⁴ \*Op. cit.\* 56. ### [v1.c3.55](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.macdonell-keith-1912.v1.c3.55) No board appears to have been used, but a depression on which the dice were thrown (adhi-devana, devana,³⁵ iriṇa³⁶), was made in the ground. No dice box was used, but reference is made to a case for keeping dice in (akṣa-vapana³⁷). The throw was called graha³⁸ or earlier grābha.³⁹ The stake is called vij.⁴⁰ Serious losses could be made at dicing : in the Rigveda a dicer laments the loss of all his property, including his wife.⁴¹ Lüders⁴² finds a different form of the game referred to in the Chāndogya Upaniṣad.⁴³ ### [v1.c3.56](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.macdonell-keith-1912.v1.c3.56) ³⁵ Adhidevana in Av. v. 31, 6; vi. 70, 1; Maitrāyaṇī Saṃhitā, i. 6, 11; iv. 4, 6, etc.; devana in Rv. x. 43, 5. The falling of the dice on the ground is referred to in Av. vii. 114, 2. ### [v1.c3.57](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.macdonell-keith-1912.v1.c3.57) ³⁶ Rv. x. 34, 1. ### [v1.c3.58](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.macdonell-keith-1912.v1.c3.58) ³⁷ Śatapatha Brāhmaṇa, v. 3, 1, 11. ### [v1.c3.59](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.macdonell-keith-1912.v1.c3.59) ³⁸ Av. iv. 38, 1 et seq.; cf. vii. 114, 5. ### [v1.c3.60](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.macdonell-keith-1912.v1.c3.60) ³⁹ Rv. viii. 81, 1; ix. 106, 3. ### [v1.c3.61](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.macdonell-keith-1912.v1.c3.61) ⁴⁰ Rv. i. 92, 10; ii. 12, 5; lakṣa in ii. 12, 4, and often dhana. So Lüders, op. cit., 10, n. 5; 62, n. 1. Roth and Zimmer, op. cit., 286, render ‘he makes the dice secretly disappear’ (i. 92, 10). ### [v1.c3.62](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.macdonell-keith-1912.v1.c3.62) ⁴¹ Rv. x. 34, 2. For cheating at play cf. Rv. v. 85, 8; vii. 86, 6; 104 14; Av. vi. 118. ### [v1.c3.63](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.macdonell-keith-1912.v1.c3.63) ⁴² Op. cit., 61. ### [v1.c3.64](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.macdonell-keith-1912.v1.c3.64) ⁴³ iv. 1, 4; 6. According to Nīlakaṇṭha on Harivaṃśa, ii. 61, 39, the stake was divided into ten parts, and the Kali then took one, the Dvāpara three, the Tretā six, and the Kṛta all ten. This explanation seems harsh. Cf. Roth, Gurupūjākaumudī, 1-4; Zimmer, Altindisches Leben, 283-287; Lüders, Das Würfelspiel im alten Indien; Caland, Zeitschrift der Deutschen Morgenländischen Gesellschaft, 62, 123 et seq.; Keith, Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, 1908, 823 et seq. ### [v1.c3.65](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.macdonell-keith-1912.v1.c3.65) 3. Akṣa.—In the Chāndogya Upaniṣad (vii. 3, 1) this word seems to denote the nut of the Vibhīdaka (Terminalia bellerica). ### [v1.c3.66](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.macdonell-keith-1912.v1.c3.66) Akṣata or Akṣita.—In one passage of the Atharvaveda,¹ dealing with the Jāyānya, mention is made of a remedy for sores designated both Akṣita and Sukṣata, or, according to the reading of the Kauṣika Sūtra, Akṣata and Sukṣata, while Sāyaṇa has Akṣita and Sukṣita. Bloomfield² renders ‘not caused by cutting’ and ‘caused by cutting.’ Formerly³ he suggested ‘tumour’ or ‘boil.’ Whitney⁴ thinks that two varieties of Jāyānya are meant. Ludwig⁵ reads with Sāyaṇa akṣita, which he renders by ‘not firmly established’ in the invalid. Zimmer⁶ finds it a disease Kṣata. ### [v1.c3.67](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.macdonell-keith-1912.v1.c3.67) ¹ vii. 76, 4. ### [v1.c3.68](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.macdonell-keith-1912.v1.c3.68) ² Hymns of the Atharvaveda, 17, 562. ### [v1.c3.69](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.macdonell-keith-1912.v1.c3.69) ³ Journal of the American Oriental Society, 13, cxvii. et seq. ### [v1.c3.70](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.macdonell-keith-1912.v1.c3.70) ⁴ Translation of the Atharvaveda, 442. ### [v1.c3.71](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.macdonell-keith-1912.v1.c3.71) ⁵ Translation of the Rigveda, 3, 500. ### [v1.c3.72](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.macdonell-keith-1912.v1.c3.72) ⁶ Altindisches Leben, 377. ### [v1.c3.73](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.macdonell-keith-1912.v1.c3.73) Akṣā-vapana. See Akṣa. ### [v1.c3.74](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.macdonell-keith-1912.v1.c3.74) Akṣu.—The word occurs in two passages of the Atharvaveda¹ and one of the Rigveda.² Roth³ renders it by ‘net,’ while Böhtlingk⁴ suggests ‘axle of a car.’ Geldner⁵ sees in it a stake or pole used with a fishermen’s net (Jāla),⁶ the pole of a wagon,⁷ and the pole of a house, whether vertical or horizontal, he leaves uncertain (see Vamśa).⁸ Bloomfield⁹ takes it as a covering of wickerwork stretched across a beam and sloping down to both sides—like a thatched roof, and this best explains the epithet ‘thousand-eyed’ (i.e., with countless holes) ascribed to it. In the other Atharvaveda passage¹⁰ he accepts the sense ‘net,’ and doubts if the word in the Rigveda is not an adjective (a-kṣu) as it is taken by Sāyaṇa. See also Gṛha. ### [v1.c3.75](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.macdonell-keith-1912.v1.c3.75) ¹ viii. 8, 18 (akṣujālābhyām); ix. 3, 18. ### [v1.c3.76](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.macdonell-keith-1912.v1.c3.76) ² i. 180, 5. ### [v1.c3.77](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.macdonell-keith-1912.v1.c3.77) ³ St. Petersburg Dictionary, s.v. ### [v1.c3.78](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.macdonell-keith-1912.v1.c3.78) ⁴ Dictionary, s.v. ### [v1.c3.79](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.macdonell-keith-1912.v1.c3.79) ⁵ Vedische Studien, 1, 136. ### [v1.c3.80](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.macdonell-keith-1912.v1.c3.80) ⁶ Av. viii. 8, 18. ### [v1.c3.81](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.macdonell-keith-1912.v1.c3.81) ⁷ Av. i. 180, 5. ### [v1.c3.82](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.macdonell-keith-1912.v1.c3.82) ⁸ ix. 3, 18. ### [v1.c3.83](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.macdonell-keith-1912.v1.c3.83) ⁹ Hymns of the Atharvaveda, 598. ### [v1.c3.84](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.macdonell-keith-1912.v1.c3.84) ¹⁰ Av. viii. 8, 18. Cf. Zimmer, Altindisches Leben, 153, 265; Whitney, Translation of the Atharvaveda, 506, 526; Oldenberg, Ṛgveda-Noten, 1, 179. ### [v1.c3.85](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.macdonell-keith-1912.v1.c3.85) Agasti.—This form of Agastya’s name occurs once in the Atharvaveda,¹ where he appears as a favourite of Mitra and Varuṇa. ### [v1.c3.86](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.macdonell-keith-1912.v1.c3.86) ¹ iv. 9, 3. Cf. Sieg, Die Sagenstoffe des Ṛgveda, 127, n. 5. ### [v1.c3.87](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.macdonell-keith-1912.v1.c3.87) Agastya.—This is the name of a sage, of mythical character, who plays a great part in the later literature. He was a Māna,¹ and therefore is called Mānya² and son of Māna, and only once is there a reference³ to the legend prevalent in later times that he was a son of Mitra and Varuṇa. ### [v1.c3.88](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.macdonell-keith-1912.v1.c3.88) ¹ Rv. vii. 33, 10 (Agastya), 13 (Māna). ### [v1.c3.89](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.macdonell-keith-1912.v1.c3.89) ² Rv. i. 165, 15=166, 15=167, 11=168, 10; 165, 14; 177, 5; 184, 4 (Mānya); i. 189, 8; 117, 11 (Mānasya sūnu). ### [v1.c3.90](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.macdonell-keith-1912.v1.c3.90) ³ Rv. vii. 33, 13. Cf. Geldner, Vedische Studien, 2, 138 et seq. ### [v1.c3.91](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.macdonell-keith-1912.v1.c3.91) His greatest feat was the reconciliation of Indra and the Maruts after Indra had been annoyed at his proposing to give the Maruts an offering to the exclusion of Indra. This feat is the subject of three hymns of the Rigveda,⁴ and is often referred to in the Brāhmaṇas,⁵ though the exact details and significance of the legend are variously treated by Oldenberg,⁶ Sieg,⁷ Hertel,⁸ and von Schroeder.⁹ ### [v1.c3.92](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.macdonell-keith-1912.v1.c3.92) ⁴ Rv. i. 165; 170; 171. ### [v1.c3.93](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.macdonell-keith-1912.v1.c3.93) ⁵ Taittirīya Saṃhitā, vii. 5, 5, 2; Taittirīya Brāhmaṇa, ii. 7, 11, 1; Maitrāyaṇī Saṃhitā, ii. 1, 8; Kāṭhaka Saṃhitā, x. 11; Pañcaviṃśa Brāhmaṇa, xxi. 14, 5; Aitareya Brāhmaṇa, v. 16; Kauṣītaki Brāhmaṇa, xxvi. 9. ### [v1.c3.94](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.macdonell-keith-1912.v1.c3.94) ⁶ Zeitschrift der Deutschen Morgenländischen Gesellschaft, 39, 60 et seq. ### [v1.c3.95](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.macdonell-keith-1912.v1.c3.95) ⁷ Die Sagenstoffe des Rgveda, 108-119. ### [v1.c3.96](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.macdonell-keith-1912.v1.c3.96) ⁸ Vienna Oriental Journal, 18, 152-154. ### [v1.c3.97](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.macdonell-keith-1912.v1.c3.97) ⁹ Mysterium und Mimus im Rigveda, 91 et seq. ### [v1.c3.98](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.macdonell-keith-1912.v1.c3.98) He also appears in a strange dialogue with Lopāmudrā in the Rigveda,¹⁰ which appears to show him as an ascetic who finally yields to temptation. Von Schroeder¹¹ regards it as a ritual drama of vegetation magic. ### [v1.c3.99](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.macdonell-keith-1912.v1.c3.99) ¹⁰ i. 179. Cf. Sieg, op. cit., 120-126; Oldenberg, op. cit., 66-68. ### [v1.c3.100](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.macdonell-keith-1912.v1.c3.100) ¹¹ Op. cit., 156-172. ### [v1.c3.101](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.macdonell-keith-1912.v1.c3.101) In another passage of the Rigveda¹² he appears as helping in the Aśvins’ gift of a leg to Viśpalā. Sāyaṇa holds that he was the Purohita of Khela, and Sieg¹³ accepts this view, while Pischel¹⁴ thinks that Khela is a deity, Vivasvant. ### [v1.c3.102](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.macdonell-keith-1912.v1.c3.102) ¹² i. 117, 11; cf. i. 116, 15. ### [v1.c3.103](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.macdonell-keith-1912.v1.c3.103) ¹³ Op. cit., 128. ### [v1.c3.104](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.macdonell-keith-1912.v1.c3.104) ¹⁴ Vedische Studien, 1, 171-173. ### [v1.c3.105](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.macdonell-keith-1912.v1.c3.105) Geldner¹⁵ shows from the Rigveda¹⁶ that Agastya, as brother of Vasiṣṭha—both being miraculous sons of Mitra and Varuṇa—introduces Vasiṣṭha to the Tṛtsus. There are two other references to Agastya in the Rigveda, the one¹⁷ including him in a long list of persons, the other alluding to his sister’s sons (nadbhyaḥ),¹⁸ apparently Bandhu, etc. In the Atharvaveda¹⁹ he appears as connected with witchcraft, and in a long list of sages.²⁰ In the Maitrāyaṇī Saṃhitā²¹ cows, with a peculiar mark on their ears (viṣṭya-karṇyaḥ), are associated with him. ### [v1.c3.106](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.macdonell-keith-1912.v1.c3.106) ¹⁵ Vedische Studien, 2, 138, 143. ### [v1.c3.107](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.macdonell-keith-1912.v1.c3.107) ¹⁶ Rv. vii. 33, 10. 13. ### [v1.c3.108](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.macdonell-keith-1912.v1.c3.108) ¹⁷ vii. 5, 26. Sieg, 129, suggests that this refers to the Khela legend. ### [v1.c3.109](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.macdonell-keith-1912.v1.c3.109) ¹⁸ x. 60, 6. ### [v1.c3.110](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.macdonell-keith-1912.v1.c3.110) ¹⁹ ii. 32, 3; iv. 37, 1. Perhaps for this reason the Rigveda Anukramaṇī ascribes to him (Rv. i. 191) a magic hymn. ### [v1.c3.111](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.macdonell-keith-1912.v1.c3.111) ²⁰ xviii. 3, 15. ### [v1.c3.112](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.macdonell-keith-1912.v1.c3.112) ²¹ iv. 2, 9. Cf. Ludwig, Translation of the Rigveda, 3, 117; Sieg, Die Sagenstoffe des Rgveda, 106-129; Macdonell, Bṛhad-devatā, 2, 136 et seq.; Oldenberg, Zeitschrift der Deutschen Morgenländischen Gesellschaft, 42, 221; Rgveda-Noten, 1, 110. ### [v1.c3.113](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.macdonell-keith-1912.v1.c3.113) Agāra ### [v1.c3.114](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.macdonell-keith-1912.v1.c3.114) Agāra.—This rare word is found as ‘house’ in the Kauṣītaki Upaniṣad.¹ ### [v1.c3.115](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.macdonell-keith-1912.v1.c3.115) ¹ ii. 15. Cf. āgara, ‘chamber’ (?), n Av. iv. 36, 3; Bloomfield, Hymns of the Atharvaveda, 407. Agāra occurs also in Āśvalāyana Gṛhya Sūtra, i. 7, 21. ### [v1.c3.116](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.macdonell-keith-1912.v1.c3.116) Agni-dagdha.—This epithet (‘burnt with fire’)¹ applies to the dead who were burned on the funeral pyre. This is one of the two normal methods of disposing of the dead, the other being burial (\*an-agnidagdhāḥ\*, ‘not burnt with fire’).² The Atharvaveda³ adds two further modes of disposal to those—viz., casting out (\*paroptāḥ\*), and the exposure of the dead (\*uddhitāḥ\*). The exact sense of these expressions is doubtful. Zimmer⁴ considers that the former is a parallel to the Iranian practice of casting out the dead to be devoured by beasts, and that the latter refers to the old who are exposed when helpless.⁵ Whitney⁶ refers the latter expression to the exposure of the dead body on a raised platform of some sort. ### [v1.c3.117](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.macdonell-keith-1912.v1.c3.117) ¹ Rv. x. 15, 14; Taittirīya Brāhmaṇa, iii. 1, 1, 7; dagdhāḥ, Av. xviii. 2, 34. ### [v1.c3.118](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.macdonell-keith-1912.v1.c3.118) ² Rv., loc. cit.; =nikhātāḥ, Av. xviii. 2, 34. ### [v1.c3.119](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.macdonell-keith-1912.v1.c3.119) ³ Loc. cit. ### [v1.c3.120](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.macdonell-keith-1912.v1.c3.120) ⁴ Altindisches Leben, 402. ### [v1.c3.121](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.macdonell-keith-1912.v1.c3.121) ⁵ Rv. viii, 51, 2. ### [v1.c3.122](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.macdonell-keith-1912.v1.c3.122) ⁶ Translation of the Atharvaveda, 841. ### [v1.c3.123](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.macdonell-keith-1912.v1.c3.123) Burial was clearly not rare in the Rigvedic period: a whole hymn⁷ describes the ritual attending it. The dead man was buried apparently in full attire, with his bow in his hand, and probably at one time his wife was immolated to accompany him, in accordance with a practice common among savage tribes. But in the Vedic period both customs appear in a modified form: the son takes the bow from the hand of the dead man, and the widow is led away from her dead husband by his brother or other nearest kinsman. A stone is set between the dead and the living to separate them. In the Atharvaveda,⁸ but not in the Rigveda, a coffin (\*vṛkṣa\*) is alluded to. In both Saṃhitās⁹ occur other allusions to the ‘house of earth’ (\*bhūmi-gṛha\*). To remove the apparent discrepancy between burning and burial, by assuming that the references to burial are to the burial of the burned bones, as does Oldenberg,¹⁰ is unnecessary and improbable, as burning and burial subsisted side by side in Greece for many years. ### [v1.c3.124](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.macdonell-keith-1912.v1.c3.124) ⁷ x. 18. The interpretation of v. 8 is a famous crux, see Patnī. ### [v1.c3.125](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.macdonell-keith-1912.v1.c3.125) ⁸ xviii. 2, 25; 3, 70. ### [v1.c3.126](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.macdonell-keith-1912.v1.c3.126) ⁹ Rv. vii. 89, 1; Av. v. 30, 14; xviii. 2, 52. ### [v1.c3.127](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.macdonell-keith-1912.v1.c3.127) ¹⁰ Religion des Veda, 571. ### [v1.c3.128](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.macdonell-keith-1912.v1.c3.128) Burning was, however, equally usual, and it grew steadily in frequency, for in the Chāndogya Upaniṣad¹¹ the adornment of the body of the dead with curd (Āmikṣā), clothes, and ornaments, in order to win the next world, is referred to as something erroneous and wrong, and in the funeral Mantras of the Vājasaneyi Saṃhitā¹² only burning seems to be contemplated; the verses which refer to burial here really alluding to the burial of the ashes in the burying-ground (śmaśāna).¹³ The body was wrapped in fat,¹⁴ as we learn from the funeral hymn in the Rigveda, a goat being apparently burned with it,¹⁵ to act as a guide on the way to the next world. According to the Atharvaveda¹⁶ a draft-ox was burned presumably for the dead to ride with in the next world. It was expected that the dead would revive with his whole body and all his limbs (sarva-tanūḥ sāṅgaḥ),¹⁷ although it is also said¹⁸ that the eye goes to the sun, the breath to the wind, and so forth. ### [v1.c3.129](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.macdonell-keith-1912.v1.c3.129) ¹¹ viii. 8, 5. ### [v1.c3.130](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.macdonell-keith-1912.v1.c3.130) ¹² xxxv. Cf. also Kauśika Sūtra, 80 et seq., which treats the Atharvaveda hymns, xviii. 1-3, as intended for burning only. ### [v1.c3.131](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.macdonell-keith-1912.v1.c3.131) ¹³ Av. v. 31, 8; x. 1, 18; Taittirīya Saṃhitā, v. 2, 8, 5; 4, 11, 3. ### [v1.c3.132](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.macdonell-keith-1912.v1.c3.132) ¹⁴ Rv. x. 16, 7. ### [v1.c3.133](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.macdonell-keith-1912.v1.c3.133) ¹⁵ Rv. x. 16, 4. But aja may mean ‘the unborn part,’ as Weber prefers to take it, Proceedings of the Berlin Academy, 1895, 847. ### [v1.c3.134](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.macdonell-keith-1912.v1.c3.134) ¹⁶ xii. 2, 48. ### [v1.c3.135](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.macdonell-keith-1912.v1.c3.135) ¹⁷ Śatapatha Brāhmaṇa, iv. 6, 1, 1; xi. 1, 8, 6; xii. 8, 3, 31. Cf. Av. xi. 3, 32. This fact probably explains the use of śeṣaḥ in Rv. x. 16, 5. The dead enjoy sexual pleasures in the next world; see Muir, Sanskrit Texts, 5, 307, n. 462. ### [v1.c3.136](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.macdonell-keith-1912.v1.c3.136) ¹⁸ Rv. x. 16, 3. ### [v1.c3.137](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.macdonell-keith-1912.v1.c3.137) Before burial or burning, the corpse was washed,¹⁹ a clog (kūdī) being tied to the foot to prevent the deceased returning to earth.²⁰ ### [v1.c3.138](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.macdonell-keith-1912.v1.c3.138) ¹⁹ Av. v. 19, 14. ### [v1.c3.139](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.macdonell-keith-1912.v1.c3.139) ²⁰ Av. v. 19, 12; see Roth, Festgruss an Böhtlingk, 98; Bloomfield, American Journal of Philology, 12, 416. Cf. Zimmer, Altindisches Leben, 401-407; Roth, Zeitschrift der Deutschen Morgenländischen Gesellschaft, 8, 468 et seq.; Siebenzig Lieder, 150 et seq.; Oldenberg, Religion des Veda, 570 et seq.; Caland, Die altindischen Todten- und Bestattungsgebräuche; von Schroeder, Indiens Literatur und Cultur, 40-42; Hillebrandt, Vedische Mythology, 3, 413-423; Rituallitteratur, 87 et seq.; Macdonell, Vedic Mythology, 165, 166; Proceedings of the Berlin Academy, 1895, 815 et seq. ### [v1.c3.140](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.macdonell-keith-1912.v1.c3.140) Agni-bhū Kāśyapa is mentioned in the Vamśa Brāhmaṇa¹ as a pupil of Indrabhū Kāśyapa. ### [v1.c3.141](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.macdonell-keith-1912.v1.c3.141) ¹ Indische Studien, 4, 374. ### [v1.c3.142](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.macdonell-keith-1912.v1.c3.142) Agni-śāla.—This term, which designates part of the sacrificial apparatus,¹ is applied in the Atharvaveda² to a part of an ordinary house, presumably the central hall where the fireplace was. ### [v1.c3.143](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.macdonell-keith-1912.v1.c3.143) ¹ Vājasaneyi Saṃhitā, xix. 18. ### [v1.c3.144](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.macdonell-keith-1912.v1.c3.144) ² ix. 3, 7. Cf. Bloomfield, \*Hymns of the Atharvaveda\*, 598; Zimmer, \*Altindisches Leben\*, 154. ### [v1.c3.145](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.macdonell-keith-1912.v1.c3.145) Aghā.—In the wedding hymn of the Rigveda¹ it is said that cows are slain in the Aghās, and the wedding takes place at the Arjunīs (dual). The Atharvaveda² has the ordinary Maghās instead. It is impossible to resist the conclusion that the reading of the Rigveda was deliberately altered because of the connection of the slaughter of kine with sin (\*agha\*)—possibly, too, with a further desire to emphasize the contrast with \*aghnyā\*, a name for ‘cow.’ Moreover, in the Taittirīya Brāhmaṇa³ occurs the formula ‘Svāhā to the Maghās, Svāhā to the Anaghās.’ See also Nakṣatra. ### [v1.c3.146](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.macdonell-keith-1912.v1.c3.146) ¹ x. 85, 13. ### [v1.c3.147](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.macdonell-keith-1912.v1.c3.147) ² xiv. 1, 13. ### [v1.c3.148](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.macdonell-keith-1912.v1.c3.148) ³ iii. 1, 4, 8. Cf. Weber, \*Naxatra\*, 2, 364; Proceedings of the Berlin Academy, 1894, 804; Jacobi, \*Festgruss an Roth\*, 69; Winternitz, \*Das altindische Hochzeitsrituell\*, 32; Whitney, \*Translation of the Atharvaveda\*, 742; Thibaut, \*Indian Antiquary\*, 24, 95. ### [v1.c3.149](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.macdonell-keith-1912.v1.c3.149) Aghāśva.—The name of a serpent in the Atharvaveda.¹ ### [v1.c3.150](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.macdonell-keith-1912.v1.c3.150) ¹ x. 4, 10. Cf. Zimmer, \*Altindisches Leben\*, 95. ### [v1.c3.151](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.macdonell-keith-1912.v1.c3.151) A-ghnyā.—See Māmsa. ### [v1.c3.152](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.macdonell-keith-1912.v1.c3.152) Aṅka.—The Taittirīya Saṃhitā¹ and Brāhmaṇa² refer to two Aṅkas and two Nyaṅkas as parts of a chariot. The meaning of these terms is quite obscure. The commentators refer them to the sides or wheels. Zimmer³ compares the Greek \*ἄντυγες\*⁴ and thinks that the Aṅkau were the upper border of the body of the chariot (\*kośa, vandhura\*), and the Nyaṅkau the lower rims for greater security. Oldenberg⁵ confesses that the exact sense is impossible to make out, but considers that the terms at once refer to parts of the chariot and to divinities, while Böhtlingk⁶ takes the term as referring to divinities alone. ### [v1.c3.153](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.macdonell-keith-1912.v1.c3.153) ¹ i. 7, 7, 2. ### [v1.c3.154](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.macdonell-keith-1912.v1.c3.154) ² ii. 7, 8, 1. Cf. Pañcaviṃśa Brāhmaṇa, i. 7, 5. ### [v1.c3.155](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.macdonell-keith-1912.v1.c3.155) ³ \*Altindisches Leben\*, 251, 252. _First 200 of 8,151 passages. [Read on](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.macdonell-keith-1912.v1)_ ## Linked texts (37) - [Ṛgvedasaṃhitā](https://indike.org/pramana/in.veda.samhita.rg.8.5.26) — Sanskrit - [Atharvavedasaṃhitā](https://indike.org/pramana/in.veda.samhita.atharva.7.114) — Atharvan & Aṅgiras, Sanskrit - [Śatapathabrāhmaṇa](https://indike.org/pramana/in.veda.brahmana.satapatha.5.4.4.6) — Yājñavalkya & Śāṇḍilya (Vedic teacher), Sanskrit - [Vājasaneyisaṃhitā](https://indike.org/pramana/in.veda.samhita.suklayajur*vajasaneyi.7.30) — Sanskrit - [Taittirīyasaṃhitā](https://indike.org/pramana/in.veda.samhita.krsnayajur*taittiriya.1.8.6) — Sanskrit - [Taittirīyabrāhmaṇa](https://indike.org/pramana/in.veda.brahmana.taittiriya.3.4.1) — Sanskrit - [Chāndogyopaniṣad](https://indike.org/pramana/in.veda.upanisad.mukhya.chandogya.4.1.4) — Sanskrit - [Maitrāyaṇīsaṃhitā](https://indike.org/pramana/in.veda.samhita.krsnayajur*maitrayani.4.4.6) — Sanskrit - [Aitareyabrāhmaṇa](https://indike.org/pramana/in.veda.brahmana.aitreya.5.16) — Mahidāsa Aitareya, Sanskrit - [Bṛhadāraṇyakopaniṣad](https://indike.org/pramana/in.veda.upanisad.mukhya.brhadaranyaka.2.1.1) — Sanskrit - [Kauṣītakibrāhmaṇa](https://indike.org/pramana/in.veda.brahmana.kausitaki.26.9) — Kauṣītaki, Sanskrit - [Kāṭhakasaṃhitā](https://indike.org/pramana/in.veda.samhita.krsnayajur*kathaka.10.11) — Sanskrit - [Kātyāyanaśrautasūtra](https://indike.org/pramana/in.vedanga.kalpa.srauta.katyayana.15.7.5) — Kātyāyana (Vājasaneyi sūtrakāra), Sanskrit - [Śāṅkhāyanaśrautasūtra](https://indike.org/pramana/in.vedanga.kalpa.srauta.sankhayana.15.19) — Śāṅkhāyana, Sanskrit - [Kauṣītakibrāhmaṇopaniṣad](https://indike.org/pramana/in.veda.upanisad.mukhya.kausitaki.4.1) — Sanskrit - [Aitareyāraṇyaka](https://indike.org/pramana/in.veda.aranyaka.aitareya.1.1.1) — Sanskrit - [Taittirīyopaniṣad](https://indike.org/pramana/in.veda.upanisad.mukhya.taittiriya.1.11.2) — Sanskrit - [Baudhāyanaśrautasūtra](https://indike.org/pramana/in.vedanga.kalpa.srauta.baudhayana.2.8) — Baudhāyana, Sanskrit - [Āpastambaśrautasūtra](https://indike.org/pramana/in.vedanga.kalpa.srauta.apastamba.5.19.4) — Āpastamba, Sanskrit - [Aṣṭādhyāyī](https://indike.org/pramana/in.vedanga.vyakarana.astadhyayi.2.1.10) — Pāṇini, Sanskrit - [Jaiminīyopaniṣadbrāhmaṇa](https://indike.org/pramana/in.veda.brahmana.jaiminiya_upanisad.1.3) — Sanskrit - [Pāraskaragṛhyasūtra](https://indike.org/pramana/in.vedanga.kalpa.grhya.paraskara.3.14.6) — Pāraskara, Sanskrit - [Nirukta](https://indike.org/pramana/in.vedanga.nirukta.yaska.8.2) — Yāska, Sanskrit - [Mantrabrāhmaṇa](https://indike.org/pramana/in.veda.brahmana.mantra.2.7.1) — Sanskrit - [Taittirīyāraṇyaka](https://indike.org/pramana/in.veda.aranyaka.taittiriya.4.36) — Sanskrit - [Mahābhārata](https://indike.org/pramana/in.lit.mahabharata.vyasa.4.50) — Vyāsa, Sanskrit - [Jaiminīyabrāhmaṇa](https://indike.org/pramana/in.veda.brahmana.jaiminiya) — Sanskrit - [Āśvalāyanagṛhyasūtra](https://indike.org/pramana/in.vedanga.kalpa.grhya.asvalayana) — Āśvalāyana, Sanskrit - [Kauśikasūtra](https://indike.org/pramana/in.vedanga.kalpa.grhya.kausika) — Kauśika, Sanskrit - [Pañcaviṃśabrāhmaṇa](https://indike.org/pramana/in.veda.brahmana.pancavimsa) — Sanskrit - [Kaṭhopaniṣad](https://indike.org/pramana/in.veda.upanisad.mukhya.katha) — Sanskrit - [Vaṃśabrāhmaṇa](https://indike.org/pramana/in.veda.brahmana.vamsa) — Sanskrit - [Harivaṃśa](https://indike.org/pramana/in.lit.mahabharata.harivamsa) — Vyāsa, Sanskrit - [Sāmavedasaṃhitā](https://indike.org/pramana/in.veda.samhita.sama) — Sanskrit - [Mitra](https://indike.org/pramana/inp.epigraphy.north.mitra) - [Gopathabrāhmaṇa](https://indike.org/pramana/in.veda.brahmana.gopatha) — Sanskrit - [Varuṇa](https://indike.org/pramana/inp.epigraphy.deccan.varuna) --- Source: [https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.macdonell-keith-1912.v1](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.reference.macdonell-keith-1912.v1) · Pramāṇa