Obscure Religious Cults as Background of Bengali Literature c2: Obscure Religious Cults as Background of Bengali Literature

Obscure Religious Cults as Background of Bengali Literature c2

Language: English

Obscure Religious Cults as Background of Bengali Literature

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BY SHASHIBHUSAN DASGUPTA, M.A., PH.D. *Lecturer, Calcutta University*

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Thesis approved by the University of Calcutta for the Degree of Ph.D.

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PRINTED AND PUBLISHED BY NISHITCHANDRA SEN, SUPERINTENDENT (OFFG.), CALCUTTA UNIVERSITY PRESS, 48, HAZRA ROAD, BALLYGUNGE, CALCUTTA

The *fraternities* of the Middle Ages, which were so numerous and so varied in their objects, were not all of the same origin. Some were religious, some social, some charitable, and some industrial. The religious guilds, or *gilds*, as they were often called, were associations of laymen for the purpose of performing religious duties, such as the maintenance of a chaplain, the celebration of masses, or the support of a hospital. The social guilds were formed for the purpose of mutual aid and good fellowship, and often included in their objects the relief of the poor, the sick, and the aged. The charitable guilds were established for the purpose of supporting hospitals, almshouses, and other institutions of mercy. The industrial guilds, or *craft guilds*, were associations of men engaged in the same trade or industry, and were formed for the purpose of regulating the trade, protecting the interests of the members, and maintaining the quality of their work.

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The craft guilds, which became so powerful in the later Middle Ages, were the successors of the earlier *collegia* of the Roman Empire. The *collegia* were associations of artisans and tradesmen, which were recognized by the state and had a legal existence. When the Roman Empire fell, these associations were largely destroyed, but the idea of association for mutual protection and the regulation of trade survived. In the early Middle Ages, the *gilds* began to reappear, and by the twelfth century they were firmly established in many of the cities of Europe.

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The craft guilds were organized on a democratic basis, and every member had a voice in the management of the guild's affairs. The officers were elected by the members, and the rules and regulations were made by the guild as a whole. The guilds had the power to fix prices, to regulate the hours of labor, and to determine the conditions of apprenticeship. They also had the power to punish members who violated the rules, and to expel those who were guilty of serious offenses. The guilds were thus a powerful force in the economic life of the Middle Ages, and they played an important part in the development of the modern industrial system.

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The decline of the craft guilds began in the sixteenth century, when the rise of the factory system and the growth of international trade made it difficult for the small, local guilds to compete with the larger and more efficient industrial organizations. The guilds were also weakened by the growth of the power of the state, which began to regulate trade and industry directly, and by the rise of the capitalist class, which sought to break the power of the guilds and to establish a system of free competition. By the end of the eighteenth century, the craft guilds had largely disappeared, but their influence lived on in the trade unions and other labor organizations of the modern world.

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ABBREVIATIONS ... ... xxi PREFACE ... ... xxiii INTRODUCTION ... ... xxxi

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PART I

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THE BUDDHIST SAHAJIYĀ CULT AND LITERATURE

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CHAPTER I

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GROWTH OF THE SAHAJIYĀ CULT AND LITERATURE

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(i) Information about the Available Literature ... 1-7 [Earliest litetarure in Bengali—the Caryā-padas—linguistic character of the songs, essentially Bengali—the Dohās are composed in Western Apabhraṃśa—reasons for the linguistic anomaly—time of composition of the songs.]

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(ii) History of Buddhism in Bengal ... 7-13 [The study of Sahajiyā Buddhism in Bengal necessitates the study of the history of Buddhism in Bengal—little trace of Buddhism in Bengal before the Gupta period—Buddhism in Bengal of the Gupta period—evidence of the foreign pilgrims—the epigraphical records—Buddhism of the Pāla period.]

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(iii) Origin and Development of Tāntric Buddhism 13-27 [Mahāyāna as contrasted with Hinayāna—the quarrel between the elders and the liberals—ideal of Arhathood replaced by that of Bodhisattvahood—

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the element of Karuṇā—the theory of the three Kāyas or bodies—predominance of philosophical thought and culture of the Pāramitās—degeneration by too much popularisation—rise of Tāntric Buddhism—Mantra-naya or Mantra-yāna—tradition about the introduction of Tāntricism in Buddhism—evidence from the Mahāyāna-sūtrālaṅkāra—Dr. B. Bhaṭṭācārya's view on the introduction of Tāntricism in Buddhism untenable—the introduction of the Mantra-element—Mudrā, Maṇḍala—rise of Vajrayāna from Mantra-yāna—Kāla-cakra-yāna.]

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(iv) Mode of Transformation of the Main Ideas of Mahāyāna into those of Tāntric Buddhism ... 27-38

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[Transformation of the idea of Śūnyatā into that of Vajra—Vajra-sattva—Bodhi-citta—Śūnyatā and Karuṇā as Prajñā and Upāya—Prajñā and Upāya as the female and the male, the left and the right, the moon and the sun—Advaya and Yuganaddha—Advaya and Samarasa—evolution of the idea of Mahā-sukha—positive attributes of Nirvāṇa in popular literature—idea of Nirvāṇa-dhātu—idea of Mahā-sukha in Tāntric Buddhism.]

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CHAPTER II .

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THE GENERAL PHILOSOPHICAL STANDPOINT OF THE CARYĀ-PADAS ... ... 39-57

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[Caryā songs represent a mixture of the Mādhyamika, Vijñānavādic and Vedāntic thoughts—the dominant note of idealism—idealism explained under various poetic imageries—idealism illustrated—the theory of the four Śūnyas—Śūnya—Ati-śūnya—Mahā-śūnya—Sarva-śūnya—the theory of the Śūnyas explained in the Caryās under various imageries.]

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CHAPTER III

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THE GENERAL RELIGIOUS OUTLOOK OF THE SAHAJIYĀS

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(i) Salient Features of the Religion Preached in the Buddhist Dohās and Songs :

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(A) The Spirit of Protest and Criticism ... 58-60 [Sahaja-path the most natural path—and at the same time the easiest path.]

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(B) Aversion to recondite scholarship ... 60-62

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(C) Scathing Criticism of the Formalities of Life and Religion (and similar spirit found in the Jaina Dohās) ... ... 62-70

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(D) Possible Sources of the Spirit of Criticism of the Sahajiyās ... ... 70-89

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[The spirit of the Āraṇyakas and the Upaniṣads—evolution of the conception of Brahman and the stress on Brahma-realisation—Karma-kāṇḍa made subservient to Brahma-knowledge—stress on the subjective side of religion—post-Upaniṣadic spirit of the epics, particularly of the Mahābhārata—the spirit of Vedānta—antagonism towards Pūrva-mīmāṃsā—Brahma-jijñāsā does not presuppose Dharma-jijñāsā—no activity is involved in true religion—Brahma-knowledge is no action or the product of any action—the spirit of Vaiṣṇavism—question of divine mercy, a break in the law of Karma—unconditional self-resignation—the ideal of passionate love—idealism of Yoga and the stress on the subjective side—heterodoxy of the Tantras—heterodoxy of the early atheistic schools—the Cārvāk school—ruthless anti-religious criticism—schools that are atheists but not anti-religious—Jainism and Buddhism—the religious perspective of Jainism—the perspective of Buddhism—strong criticism against Brahminism—monastic orthodoxy and the revolt of the Mahāyānists—revolt of Tāntric Buddhism against both Hinayāna and Mahāyāna—the orthodoxy and formalism of Tāntric Buddhism and the revolt of the Sahajiyās.]

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(ii) The Idea of Sahaja ... ... 90-100 [The unspeakable nature of Sahaja—the non-dual and unchanging nature of Sahaja—Sahaja as the underlying reality—Sahaja as the Supreme Being, both transcendent and immanent.]

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CHAPTER IV

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THE PRACTICES OF THE SAHAJIYĀS AND THE STATE OF SUPREME BLISS (MAHĀ-SUKHA)

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(i) The Guru-vāda ... ... 101-03 [Guru-vāda, a salient feature of Indian philosophy and religion—stringency of the esoteric Sādhanā responsible for so much stress on Guru-vāda in Tāntricism.]

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(ii) The Importance of the Body in the Sādhanā ... 103-07 [Body, the microcosm of the universe—all truth within—the theory of the plexus as associated with the theory of the Kāyas—the theory of the nerves.]

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(iii) The Esoteric Practice ... ... 108-10 [Production of Bodhicitta—two aspects of Bodhicitta, *Samvṛta* and *Vivṛta*.]

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(iv) The Middle Path in the Esoteric Sādhanā ... 110-15 [The philosophical view of the middle path—middle path in Yoga—middle path variously described in the Caryā-songs—the upward flow of Bodhi-citta through the middle path—four stages of bliss, four Mudrās, four moments, etc.]

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(v) The Yogic Sādhanā of the Sahajiyās and the Female Force ... ... 115-25 [Śakti as Caṇḍālī—nature of Caṇḍālī—various transformations of the Caṇḍālī into Ḍombī, Nairāmaṇi, Śavarī, Sahaja-sundarī, etc.]

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(vi) The Final State of Bodhi-citta or the State of Mahā-sukha ... ... 125-28

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PART II

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THE MEDIAEVAL SAHAJIYĀ SCHOOLS

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CHAPTER V

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THE VAISNAVA SAHAJIYĀ CULT

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(i) Transition from Buddhist Sahajiyā to Vaisnava Sahajiyā ... ... 131-39 [Extent and nature of Vaisnava Sahajiyā literature—general nature of the cult and relation with standard Vaisnava religion and literature—doubtful authorship of the texts and songs—the fundamental tenets of the Sahajiyās and its relation with Tāntricism, Hindu and Buddhist—the general feature of the Vaisnava Sahajiyās and that of the Buddhist Sahajiyās—probable historical cause of the transition.]

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(ii) The Mode of Transformation ... ... 139-42 [The final state of the Vaisnava Sahajiyās, Buddhist Sahajiyās and the Hindu Tāntrikas compared—the idea of the union of Rādhā-Kṛṣṇa, Prajñā-Upāya and Śakti-Śiva—the psychological innovation of the Vaisnava Sahajiyās and stress on it.]

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(iii) The Psychological Aspect of the Sādhanā of the Vaisnava Sahajiyās (A) The Ideal of Love ... ... 142-55

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[The ideal of Love between Rādhā-Kṛṣṇa and the philosophy behind it—the ideal of Parakiyā love—Rādhā and Kṛṣṇa combined in Caitanya—Caitanya’s religious attitude as *Rādha-bhāva*—the eternal *Līlā* as conceived by the Vaiṣṇava poets—*Līlā* is concrete—adoption of the theory of *Līlā* in the Sahajiyā school—the *Svarūpa-līlā* and the *Rūpa-līlā*—three aspects of Vṛndāvana—Vana-Vṛndāvana, Mana-Vṛndāvana and Nitya-Vṛndāvana—transition from the gross to the spiritual—two currents of Sahaja—Kṛṣṇa and Rādhā as Rasa and Rati and the male and the female.]

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(B) The Theory of Āropa ... ... 156-61

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[Āropa of Svarūpa to Rūpa—no categorical distinction between human love and divine love—Kāma leads to Prema or rather transforms itself into Prema—real significance of Āropa—a change of perspective—the importance of Rūpa in realising the Svarūpa.]

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[The Sāmānya and the Viśeṣa in Rasa and Rati—Kāya-sādhana in Sahaja-sadhana—the transcendental nature of the Sahaja-love—Caṇḍidās’s conception of love.]

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(iv) Sahaja-realisation of the Self and the Not-Self 168-70

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CHAPTER VI

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A NON-SECTARIAN APPROACH TO THE DOCTRINES OF THE SAHAJIYĀS

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(i) The Purely Psychological Approach Apart from the Theological ... ... 171-80

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[Most intense love produces a state of arrest—repression of sex replaced by the Sahajiyās by sublimation—liberation through intense emotion—evidence of the Upaniṣad—of the Bhāgavata—of the Padma-purāṇa—the view of the rhetoricians of the Rasa-school—the view of Kāśmīra Śaivism—the view of the Spanda-kārikā—similar views of the Vijñāna-bhairava.]

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(ii) Criticism from the Yoga Point of View ... 180-82

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CHAPTER VII

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THE BĀULS OF BENGAL

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(i) General Nature of the Bāul Sect ... 183-87

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[Meaning of the word Bāul—the restricted denotation of the word Bāul in the present discourse—the reverse path of the Bāuls.]

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(ii) The Bāuls and the Sahajiyās ... 187-91

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[The Bāuls are Sahajiyās in a general sense—influence of Sūfī-ism against the earlier Sahajiyā background—the Sahajiyā background—difference with the earlier Sahajiyās—the ‘Man of the heart’—the line of transformation of the conception of Sahaja to that of the ‘Man of the heart’—the Bāuls of Bengal and the mediaeval saints of the other provinces of India.]

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(iii) The Bāuls and the Sūfīs.

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(A) A Brief History of Sūfī-ism in India and particularly in Bengal ... ... 191-93

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[A brief history of Sūfī-ism in India—reasons for its popularity in India—Sūfī-ism in Bengal.]

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(B) Influence of Sūfi-ism on the General Nature of Bāul sect.

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(a) The Influence of Samā ... 193
(b) The importance of the Murshid ... 193-95 [The Murid and the Murshid—excellence of the Murshid-songs.]

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(c) Heterodoxy of the Bāuls ... 195-98
(d) Body as the Microcosm of the Universe ... 198-99
(e) The Man of the Heart ... 199-213

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[What the ‘Man of the Heart’ and love towards him really signify—difference with the Vaiṣṇava conception of love—the conception of the ‘Man of the Heart’ really represents a mixture of the conceptions of the ultimate truth in the Sahajiyā schools and in Sūfi-ism—the Sahajiyā element in the man of the heart—the Upaniṣadic background—the conception of the Divinity in Sūfi-ism—creation proceeds from love—the cosmos is supported in love—self-realisation of God through self-manifestation in creation—as creation has reached perfection in man, he is the best medium for the self-realisation of God—the dual nature of man as the finite and the infinite—as human and divine—the love of the Sūfis is the love between the human personality and the divine personality of man—love brings about union between the two—separated in love and again to be united in love—imagery of the lover and the beloved—love is the only religious method—the Sūfis and the Bāuls—the ‘unknown bird’—the ‘unknown’ to be searched and realised within—divine beauty to be realised through the medium of the human form—love-union really means self-realisation.]

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(iv) Poet Tagore and the Bāul Songs ... 213-15

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PART III

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NĀTH CULT

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CHAPTER VIII

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LEGENDS AND HISTORY

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(i) Origin of the Nāth Cult ... ... 219-32 [Nature of the Nāth cult—the Siddha cult of India—the Nāth cult as an offshoot of the Siddha cult—the Siddha cult and the school of Rasāyana—reasons for the misconception of the crypto-Buddhistic origin of the Nāth cult—general similarity in ideas and practices among the esoteric schools—general Śaivite air of the Nāth cult—confusion about the Nāth Siddhas and the Buddhist Siddhācāryas—the Nāth Siddhas and the Ājīvikas.]

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(ii) Traditions of the Eighty-four Siddhas and the Nine Nāths ... ... 232-41 [The tradition is not probably historical—mystic nature of the number eighty-four variously demonstrated—the tradition of the nine Nāths—the Nāth Gurus—Bengali account of the Nāth Gurus.]

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CHAPTER IX

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RELIGION OF THE NĀTH SIDDHAS

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(i) General Air of Supernaturalism ... 242-50 [Aṣṭa-siddhi—display of supernatural powers by the Nāth Siddhas—supernatural powers of Hāḍi-siddha—general difference in tone between Bengali Nāth literature and Sahajiyā literature—preponderance of supernaturalism—spirit of criticism in Nāth literature.]

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(ii) The Final End of the Nāth Siddhas ... 250-63 [Immortality the general aim of Haṭha-yoga—*Jivan-mukti* or immortality in a perfect body is the final aim of the Nāth Siddhas—the ripe body and the unripe body—real significance of immortality—this truth demonstrated by the stories of Nāth literature—molestation of Yama by Gorakh—the significance of the story of the downfall of Mina-nāth—the original question of Gaurī to Śiva—the central point of the story of Māṇik-cānd—Mayanāmati’s control over death through Mahājñāna—the significance of the initiation of Mayanāmati by Gorakh into the secret yogic cult—Hāḍi-siddha’s control over death illustrated through various legends—the keynote of Gopi-cānd’s great renunciation—the quest of immortality—the difference in aim between the Nāth Siddhas and the Sahajiyās.]

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(iii) The Means

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(A) Uḷtā-sādhana or the Regressive Process ... 263-69 [The Uḷtā-sādhana of the Nāth yogins—the real significance of Uḷtā-sādhana—spiritual march is Uḷtā-sādhana in general—Kṣemāi as the yogic control.]

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(B) Kāya-sādhana

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(a) The Theory of the Sun and the Moon ... 269-80 [Metaphysical implications of the sun and the moon—the sun and the moon as associated with Śakti and Śiva—various yogic implications of the union of the sun and the moon—the sun and the moon of the Nāth yogins—Mahā-rasa and the Daśama-dvāra—the process of saving the Mahā-rasa from the sun—drinking of nectar—the theory of the Tithis—the theory of Mahā-rasa as the central point of the yogic Sādhanā of the Nāth yogins.]

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(b) The Sun and the Moon as Woman and Man ... ... 280-83

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[Saving of the moon from the sun means in the grosser sense man's saving himself from the clutches of woman—general attitude of the Nāths towards woman—Mayanāmatī's reflection on woman's nature—similar tone in the Nirguṇa school of Hindi poetry.]

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(c) Points of Similarity and Difference in the Practical Aspect of Yoga between the Nāth Cult and other Esoteric Schools ... 283-87

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(iv) The Vedic Soma-sacrifice and the Drinking of Nectar in Yogic Schools ... 287-89

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(v) The Rasāyana School and the Nāth Cult ... 289-94

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PART IV

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THE DHARMA CULT AND BENGALI LITERATURE

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CHAPTER X

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GENERAL NATURE OF THE CULT ... 297-307

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[Dharma cult a local cult of West-Bengal and of some parts of Orissa—prevalent among low-class people—the composite nature of the cult—the liturgical works of the Dharma cult—and those of later Buddhism—is the Dharma cult Buddhistic in essential nature?—in what sense can the Dharma cult be said to be crypto-Buddhistic?—possible Muslim influence on the Dharma cult—causes for amity among the Muslims and the Dharmites—oppression by the Hindus of the Dharmites—the story of the wrath of Nirañjana and its significance—some Muslim practices in the Dharma cult.]

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CHAPTER XI

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SPECULATIONS ON THE CONCEPTION OF DHARMA

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(i) Hindu Conceptions of Dharma ... 308-12

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[Dharma personified in various Hindu texts—Dharma as Yama—Dharma as Yama in the Dharma cult.]
(ii) Buddhistic Substratum of Dharma ... 312-28

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[The relation between the conception of Dharma as the supreme deity and the conception of the ultimate reality of the Buddhists is very remote—theistic tendency of Mahāyāna—the docetic tendency through the theory of Tri-kāya—all docetic and theistic conceptions of the reality resulting in later times in the conception of a Supreme Being—Dharma and the three jewels, viz., Buddha, Dharma and Saṅgha—the theory of the transformation of Saṅgha into Śaṅkha is not convincing—the transformation of the three jewels—Buddha as Jagannātha—Dharma, the second jewel and Dharma-ṭhākura—Dharma and his Śakti—Dharma identified with Śiva—Śiva-śakti and Ādi-buddha—Ādi-prajñā—Ādi-budha as the Dharma-rāja.]

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CHAPTER XII

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DHARMA AS DESCRIBED IN THE DHARMA LITERATURE 329-48

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[Śūnya or Śūnyatā as applied to Dharma—Nirañjana, a popular epithet for Dharma.]
(i) Dharma—confusedly described as the Lord Supreme in the Liturgical Works ... 332-36

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[Various descriptions of Dharma in the Dharma-pūjā-vidhāna—descriptions of Dharma in the Śūnya-purāṇa—Dharma as the Lord Supreme.]
(ii) Dharma as the Sun-god ... ... 336-39
(iii) Dharma of the Dharma-maṅgalas : (A) Dharma as Viṣṇu in general ... 339-42 (B) Dharma as Rāma ... ... 342-45 (iv) The Description of Dharma as All-white ... 345-48

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[Description of Dharma as all-white in the liturgical works and the Dharma-maṅgalas—Śiva and Sarasvatī, the all-white deities of the Hindu Pantheon—significance of white colour—whiteness in Buddhism.]

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CHAPTER XIII

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THE THEORY OF THE Paṇḍitas, Koṭālas, Āminis, etc. 349-58

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[The theory expounded—chart illustrating the scheme of the Dharmites—chart illustrating the theory of the Pañca-tathāgatas of the Buddhists—the conception of the gates in the Buddhist Tantras—correspondence of the theory of the Tathāgatas and the Paṇḍitas in the Hindu Tantras—the colour scheme.]

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CHAPTER XIV

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THE THEORY OF COSMOGONY AND COSMOLOGY IN OLD AND MEDIAEVAL VERNACULARS

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(i) A Brief Exposition of the Theories ... 359-73

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[Cosmogonical and cosmological accounts of the vernaculars represent mainly a jumbling of older ideas—account given in the Śūnya-purāṇa—in the Dharma-pūjā-vidhāna—versions of Sahadev Cakravarti and Sitarām-dās—of Anādi-maṅgala of Rām-dās Ādak—account given by Ghana-rām—by Māṇik Gāṅguli—by Narasiṃha Vasu—account given in the Gājana-songs of West Bengal—in the Caṇḍi-maṅgala of Māṇik Datta—of Mukunda-rām—of Mādhavācārya—in the Annadā-maṅgala of Bhārat-candra and others—account given in the Nātha literature in texts like *Anādi-purāṇa*, or *Anādi-carita*, *Hāḍamālā-tantra*, *Yogi-tantra-kalā*, etc.—in *Gorakṣa-vijaya*—in *Gopī-candrer Sannyāsa*—account found in the Vaiṣṇava-Literature of Orissa—account given by Kabīr—by Sundar-dās, Tulasī-dās and others.

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(ii) Analysis of the ideas of Cosmogony and Cosmology found in the Vernaculars ... 373-89

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(A) The Primordial Nihil ... ... 374-76

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(B) The Conception of Nirañjana—a Replica of Prajāpati Brahmā ... ... 376-79

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[The primordial Goddess in the Upaniṣads—Prakṛti of Sāṃkhya—Kṣetra and Kṣetrajña of the Gītā—a hotch-potch of the Upaniṣadic and the Sāṃkhya accounts in the Purāṇas—the triad, personification of the three guṇas of Prakṛti—the conceptions of the Ādi-deva and the Ādi-devī of the vernaculars and the conceptions of Śiva and Śakti in the Tantras—the triad and the three goddesses associated with them—the story of the test of the triad.]

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(iii) Buddhistic Element in the Accounts of Cosmogony and Cosmology of the Vernaculars ... 389-94

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[The idea of the primordial Śūnyatā—Dharma-kāya, the cosmic oneness—mythological account of cosmology in the *Kāraṇḍa-vyūha*—cosmological implications of Prajñā and Upāya—Prajñā and Upāya in Nepalese Buddhism.]

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(iv) Similarity of the Descriptions of the Vernaculars with those of other Literatures ... 395-96

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APPENDICES

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APPENDIX (A)

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The Religious Tenets of the Non-Bengali Mediaeval Saints in relation to the Earlier Bengali Sahajiyās 399-424
(i) The spirit of revolt and criticism ... 400-11
(ii) Guru-vāda ... ... 411-12
(iii) All truth within ... ... 412-16
(iv) The conception of Sahaja ... ... 417-21
(v) Similarity in the literary form and language ... 421-24

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APPENDIX (B)

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General Informations about the Literature of the Nāth Cult ... ... 425-41

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[Discovery of the narratives on Māṇik-candra and Gopi-candra—the narrative on Gorakh-nāth—the ballads and songs popular among the Yugis and the Muslims—probable reason for the popularity of the ballads and the songs among the Muslims—yogic literature of the Muslims—stray songs of the Nāth yogins—popular ceremonies and folk-song on the Nāth yogins—the question of the time and authorship of the narratives and songs—Sanskrit literature associated with the Nāth cult—Nāth-literature in the vernaculars other than Bengali—Nāth movement an All-India movement inspiring literature in many of the vernaculars—the story of Gorakh-nāth—the story of Gopi-cānd.]

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APPENDIX (C)

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An Account of the Prominent Personalities in the Nāth Literature of Bengal ... ... 442-60

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| | | PAGES |
| (*i*) Mīna-nāth | ... | ... 442-47 |
| (*ii*) Gorakh-nāth | ... | ... 447-52 |
| (*iii*) Jālandhari-pā | ... | ... 452-54 |
| (*iv*) Kānu-pā | ... | ... 454-55 |
| (*v*) Gopī-candra or Govinda-candra | ... | 456-59 |
| (*vi*) Mayanāmatī | ... | ... 459-60 |

Linked texts (13)

Padmapurāṇa — Vyāsa, Sanskrit
Bhāgavatapurāṇa — Vyāsa, Sanskrit
Annadāmaṅgal — Bhāratcandra Rāy Guṇākar 1752, Bengali
Kāraṇḍavyūhasūtra — Sanskrit
Spandakārikā — Vasugupta & Bhaṭṭa Kallaṭa, Sanskrit
Mahāyānasūtrālaṃkāra — Maitreyanātha & Asaṅga, Sanskrit
Sāṃkhya — Sanskrit
Upaniṣad — Sanskrit
Kṣetra — Sanskrit
Bhagavadgītā — Vyāsa, Sanskrit
Caṇḍīmaṅgal (Abhayāmaṅgal) — Mukundarām Cakravartī 1555, Bengali
Dharma-maṅgal (Māṇik Rām Gāṅgulī) — Māṇik Rām Gāṅgulī 1615, Bengali
Śūnyapurāṇa — Rāmāi Paṇḍit, Bengali