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An Introduction to Tantric Buddhism c11: Chapter VI. The Argument of the Tāntric Buddhists in Defence of Their Yoga

An Introduction to Tāntric Buddhism c11

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Contents

Chapter VI. The Argument of the Tāntric Buddhists in Defence of Their Yoga

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In the previous chapters we have tried to give an exposition of the theories and practices of the Tāntric Buddhists. The *rationale* of the sexo-yogic practice of the Tāntric Buddhists is to be found in what has been described and discussed above. We do not think that any further argument is necessary in defence. But it seems that, because of the unconventional nature of their practices, these Tāntric Buddhists were sometimes over-conscious about the justifiability of their practices and advanced various arguments in defence of these practices. It will, therefore, not be without interest to state and examine the main arguments of these Tāntrikas as we find them in the various Tantras. These arguments, as is the case with their other arguments, are not found in the texts in a systematised form, they are rather to be culled from the texts. But two works are found mainly, though not entirely, devoted to offering something like a philosophical explanation of these practices; the first is the *Citta-viśuddhi-prakaraṇa* of Āryadeva and the second is the *Tattva-siddhi* of Śānta-rakṣita.¹

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¹ MS. (C.L.B.), No. 18124.

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The main argument, to start with, is that to pass any ethical judgment on the nature of an action, it should always be remembered that an action, of whatsoever nature may it be, is by itself neither moral nor immoral; in its non-relational absolute nature it is purely colourless, and hence in itself it has got no value, that being always relative. Thus the moral, immoral and non-moral nature of an action is to be determined by the effect it produces in relation to the general scheme of life. To be strictly ethical, it is not even the effect that determines the nature of an action,—it is rather the motive behind that speaks either for or against it. The main emphasis of the Tāntric Buddhists seems to be on this vital point of ethics. If it be the motive behind the action, and not the action itself, that determines the nature of an action, any and every action in the form of some religious practice is to be justified, provided, the motive behind is nothing but the attainment of some religious fulfilment. The ultimate goal of the Tāntric Buddhists is the realisation of Mahāsukha in the form of perfect enlightenment, which tantamounts to the realisation of the Vajra-nature or the Sahaja-nature of the self and the dharmas. With a view to attaining this final goal they adopted a particular sexo-yogic practice. If we are to judge this practice by the motive which impels them to have recourse to it—and not by the commonly accepted nature and value of the action—we shall have nothing to say against it. If the motive or rather the perspective be not pure, they will be like fools building their house on the sands and great will be their fall in the dark abyss of the cycle of birth and death. This path of Yoga with sex-relation has frequently been spoken of as a very easy path for the attainment of success, as it is the most natural path, being in consonance with our natural human tendencies and involving no unnatural strain of continual repression. At the same time it has also been repeatedly reminded at every step that it is also a very dangerous path of Yoga; for, everything depends on the purity of the citta.

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In the Citta-viśuddhi-prakaraṇa of Āryadeva we find a short ethical discussion on the nature of sin. There it is said that the mind is the real agent of all actions—nay, it is the antecedent factor of the dharmas, it is the most important, it is the quickest ; it is through the pleasure and displeasure of the mind that our speech and actions follow.¹ It is, therefore, that the citta is solely responsible for the ethical nature of an action.²

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¹ *manaḥpūrvaṅgamā dharmā manaḥśreṣṭhā manojabāḥ |* *manasā hi prasannena bhāṣate vā karoti vā ||* Verse 10. This verse is nothing but the Sanskritised form of the two opening verses of the Pāli text *Dhamma-pada* which run thus:— *manopubbaṅgamā dhammā manoseṭṭhā manomayā |* *manasā ce paduṭṭhena bhāsati vā karoti vā |* *tato’naṃ dukkha-manveti cakkaṃ’va vahato padaṃ ||* *manopubbaṅgamā dhammā manoseṭṭhā manomayā |* *manasā ce pasannena bhāsati vā karoti vā |* *tato’naṃ sukhamanveti chāyā va anapāyinī ||* Verses 1-2.

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² The author takes an instance here. An old man was directed by a slumbering monk to go quickly to a place; because the rapidity of motion the old fellow had a fall and he died; now apparently the sin of causing death to the old man seems to devolve on the slumbering monk; but as the intention of the monk in ordering the old man to hasten to a particular place was very good, he should not be held morally responsible for the death of the old man and thus he commits no sin. The authority of the *Vinaya* is also referred to here which holds that unintentional causing of death is no sin on the part of a man possessing no wicked mind. Verses 11-18.

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Thus the intention behind an action gives an action a moral or immoral colouring, and as this principle has got its sanction in the Scriptures, no pious man can have any objection to it.³ Then the author goes on to say that the Yogin, who has made a ‘god’ of himself by the universalisation of the self, and all of whose activities are prompted by a spirit of benevolence towards the world, attains liberation by the enjoyment of objects, and never is he bound down by any such enjoyment. As a man versed in the science of poison knows poison as poison and then swallows some quantity of it and yet he never falls swooning thereby, on the other hand becomes cured of diseases, so also is the case with an expert Yogin, who attains liberation through enjoyment.⁴

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³ *tasmād āsaya-mūlā hi pāpa-puṇya-vyavasthitiḥ |* *ity uktam āgame yasmān nā’pattiḥ śubha-cetasām ||* *Ibid.*, Verse 15.

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⁴ *Ibid.*, Verses 17-18.

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A general consideration of the trend of argument of the Tāntric Buddhists will show that their main stress is on the point that no action duly performed with Prajñā and Upāya comes within the scope of our popular code of morality. Prajñā, we have seen, is perfect knowledge of the nature of perfect vacuity about the nature of the self and the *dharmas*; and Upāya is the spirit of universal compassion, and these two taken together constitute the Bodhicitta. Now, it can very easily be shown from the standpoint of Prajñā or perfect knowledge that there cannot be any provision for morality, and similarly it can also be shown that from the standpoint of Upāya or universal compassion also there cannot be any provision for morality.

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We have seen that the Tāntric Buddhists, in unison with the Mahāyānist Buddhists in general, were advocates of an extreme form of idealism. With them the world has no objective basis; everything that appears to exist outside, is nothing but the illusory creation of the subject. It is, indeed, extremely difficult to construct any system of ethics on the ground of this extreme form of idealism. And as a matter of fact the idealistic Buddhists left no scope for morality. It has been declared by Nāgārjuna in unequivocal terms that the value of morality is always provisional, there being no objective basis for it whatsoever. The whole universe of good and bad, right and wrong, being a mere creation of the *citta*, the world of morality has only subjective value and as such is always provisional. This extreme form of subjectivism has often been emphasised by the Tāntric Buddhists in connection with the ethical questions pertaining to their practices. The *citta* or mind being the ultimate ground of all creation, the nature of the *citta* will determine the nature of all appearances in the form of actions; and so, all actions done with a pure mind cannot but be pure even if sex-relation is involved in them. In the *Jñāna-siddhi* of Indra-bhūti we find an interesting discussion on this topic of virtue and vice. It is pointed out that contradictory statements and injunctions are to be met with in the Tāntric texts; some actions are described somewhere as virtuous and vicious in other places. How then to reconcile these contradictory statements? It has been replied that in reality there is nothing virtuous and nothing vicious. Virtue and vice depend on the condition of the *citta*. There are three elements (*dhātu*) which generally combine together for the performance of an action; these are body (*kāya*), speech (*vāk*) and mind (*manas*). Of the three, body has no power to do anything without mind; speech is also never possible without mind; so, it stands that it is the *citta* that is doing all good and bad through body and speech.¹ How then to define virtue and vice? It is said, whatever is done with a view to doing good to the world is right or virtuous, and whatever is done with any other motive is a sin.² All the right and wrong are created by the *citta* and it is through the *citta* again that they are all destroyed. Charity is one of the universally recognised moral virtues; but the mere action of giving produces no virtue unless it is done with a charitable mind; the virtue of the action of giving depends solely on the attitude of the mind.³ It is finally decided here that there is no other criterion of virtue than the benevolent spirit; any action prompted by such a spirit is moral, and any action done with a malicious spirit is immoral.⁴

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¹ Ch. IX, Verses 6-7.

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² *hitā-rthaṁ yad bhavet karma sarvaṁ sac-caritaṁ bhavet |* *viparyayāt apuṇyaṁ tat pravadanti jino-ttamāḥ ||* Ibid., Verse 8.

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³ Ibid., Verse 15.

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⁴ In the tenth chapter of the same work it is said that the conceptions of purity and impurity are mere thought-constructions. There is nothing as purity; for, the very existence of purity will posit its anti-thesis impurity; and if there be no conception of purity at all, there will not be any conception of impurity also. Both the conceptions are relative and are mere imagination of the common run of people (X, 9-10). In the eleventh chapter of the same work we find that a Yogin is justified to adopt any woman for the purpose of his Yoga, no matter in what relation she stands to him; for, all human relations are without any objective truth behind them; they are mere thought-constructions of the common people.

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It has been further argued in some of the texts that the Yogin, before he enters into the auspicious circle with a view to be initiated in the secret cult of Yoga, must possess a trained mind and perfectly purified body (or rather an immortal body) fit to realise the ultimate void-nature or the *Sahaja*-nature of the self and the *dharmas*. When the mind of a Yogin is thus ‘placed in the knowledge of the vacuity or the non-dual knowledge’, he cannot have any mental complex of morality and immorality or virtue and vice. To such a man all the *dharmas* appear to be of the same non-dual nature.¹ In the *Yuganaddha-krama* of the *Pañca-krama* it has been said that when the Yogin places himself in the state of *Yuganaddha* or unification he should make no distinction between the self and the enemy, the wife and the daughter, the mother and a public woman, a *Ḍombī* and a lady belonging to the caste of the twice-born; to him a piece of cloth and the skin of a beast, jewel and the husk of corn, urine and good drink,

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¹ It is said in the fifteenth chapter of the *Prajño-pāya-viniścaya-siddhi* of Anaṅga-vajra that in the yogic practices of Vajra-yāna there should be no deliberation as to what kind of a Mudrā should be adopted and what not; for, through the Yoga, which leads to the realisation of the magical nature of the universe, one can safely enjoy everything. Everything having its existence in the ultimate non-dual substance (*dharma-dhātu*), nothing can be harmful to Yoga; and, therefore, the Yogin should enjoy everything to his heart’s content without the least fear or hesitation. Verses 29-80.

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Moreover, in the beginningless whirl of birth and death a mother of one life may become the daughter of the other life, and she again in her turn may become a wife in the next birth; so there being no fundamental difference between a woman as the mother and as the daughter and the wife, any one of them may be adopted for the purpose of Yoga. This ocean of world is full of the water of thought-constructions, and the yogic process of the Vajra-yāna is like a raft to take people across the other shore.

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It has been said in the *Ekalla-vīra-caṇḍa-mahā-roṣaṇa-tantra* that the Yogin of the Vajra-yāna should have no fear either of heaven or of hell; for there is neither any vice, nor any virtue; all vice and virtue are spoken of only for the satisfaction of the common people. As everything is by nature nothing but the *citta* and as the existence of everything is but momentary, who is there to go to hell and who to go to heaven?

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*na pāpaṃ vidyate kiñcit na puṇyaṃ kiñcid astiha |*
*lokānāṃ citta-rakṣāya pāpa-puṇya-vyavasthitiḥ ||*
*citta-mātraṃ yataḥ sarvaṃ kṣaṇa-mātraṃ yataḥ sthitiḥ |*
*narakaṃ gacchati ko’sau ko’sau svargaṃ prayāti hi ||*
MS. (R.A.S.B., No. 9089) p. 14(A).

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cooked food and waste matter, scented camphor and the bad smell of the impure, praises and scorns—all are of equal value. To him there is no distinction between the fierce God (i.e., Śiva) and the wielder of the thunder (i.e., Indra), between day and night, dream and awakening, the past and the present, happiness and sorrow, any wicked man and the son, hell and heaven, virtue and vice.¹

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¹ *yathā’tmani tathā śatrau yathā bhāryā tathā-tmajā |* *yathā mātā tathā veśyā yathā ḍombī tathā dvijā ||* *yathā vastraṃ tathā carma yathā ratnaṃ tathā tuṣam |* *yathā mūtraṃ tathā medyaṃ yathā bhaktaṃ tathā sakṛt ||* *yathā sugandhi-karpūraṃ tathā gandham amedhyajam |* *yathā stutikaraṃ vākyaṃ tathā vākyaṃ jugupsitam ||* *yathā rudras tathā vajrī yathā rātris tathā divā |* *yathā svapnaṃ tathā dṛṣṭaṃ yathā naṣṭaṃ tathā sthitam ||* *yathā saukhyaṃ tathā duḥkhaṃ yathā duṣṭas tathā sutaḥ |* *yathā vīcis tathā svargās tathā puṇyaṃ tu pāpakam ||* *Pañca-krama*, MS. p. 88(A).

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We find it quoted in the *Subhāṣita-saṃgraha* that whatever easy movements of the limbs are produced through the Bodhicitta, which is pure by nature, are to be recognised as the Mudrās (yogic Mudrās), and all the sound-vibrations are to be recognised as the Mantras. Not only that, in connection with the Sahaja all the varieties of emotions, such as the erotic emotion, heroism, the emotion of scorn, anger, laughter, fear, pity, wonder and quiescence,—the emotions of attachment, hatred, infatuation, pride and jealousy, etc.,—all become pure by nature and all of them reflect the knowledge of vacuity; for, at basis all these are nothing but the forms of the one citta produced through the three elements.²

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² *Subhāṣita-saṃgraha*, p. 47. Again it has been said,—foolish people think of liberation (*mokṣa*) as something entirely different from the enjoyment of the world; but whatever there is sublime and great which is heard, seen, smelt, eaten, known and touched, is good all round; all the women are to be known as the thunder-women (*vajra-nārī*), all men are to be recognised as the lords of the yogic circle, the whole drama of the world is to be known as perfectly pure by nature. *Subhāṣita-saṃgraha*, p. 56.

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In the *Hevajra-tantra* the Bodhisattva Vajra-

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*yathā’tmani tathā śatrau yathā bhāryā tathā-tmajā |*
*yathā mātā tathā veśyā yathā ḍombī tathā dvijā ||*
*yathā vastraṃ tathā carma yathā ratnaṃ tathā tuṣam |*
*yathā mūtraṃ tathā medyaṃ yathā bhaktaṃ tathā sakṛt ||*
*yathā sugandhi-karpūraṃ tathā gandham amedhyajam |*
*yathā stutikaraṃ vākyaṃ tathā vākyaṃ jugupsitam ||*
*yathā rudras tathā vajrī yathā rātris tathā divā |*
*yathā svapnaṃ tathā dṛṣṭaṃ yathā naṣṭaṃ tathā sthitam ||*
*yathā saukhyaṃ tathā duḥkhaṃ yathā duṣṭas tathā sutaḥ |*
*yathā vīcis tathā svargās tathā puṇyaṃ tu pāpakam ||*
*Pañca-krama*, MS. p. 88(A).

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garbha asks the Lord (bhagavān) how it may be possible to attain success in Yoga in the company of a woman. In reply the Lord says that in the Prajñā and the Upāya there is neither origination nor destruction ; through perfect knowledge of the world the Yogin first of all should realise the illusory and magical nature of the world, and then he will find that all the theses and anti-theses vanish in the sky. Yoga presupposes this knowledge about the world and the Yoga performed with this kind of knowledge is always above the range of the ordinary codes of morality.¹

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Tillo-pāda says in one of his Dohās, “I am void, the world is void,—all the three worlds are void,—in this pure Sahaja there is neither sin nor virtue.”² The ultimate reality is bereft of both merit and demerit.³

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² hau suṇṇa jagu suṇṇa tihua[ṇa] suṇṇa | [ṇimmala sahaje ṇa papa ṇa puṇṇa] Dohā No. 84.

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³ Dohā No. 29.

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Now, from the standpoint of Upāya or universal compassion we see, that the ordinary standard of morality cannot be applied to a Bodhisattva. For, a Bodhisattva has no right to consider the pros and cons

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Cf. also,—yas tu sarvāṇi kriyāṇi prajñayā viniyojayet |
so’pi śūnya-pada-yogas tapo hy etam mahātmanām ||
Sarva-deva-samāgama-tantra, quoted in the Subhāṣita-saṃgraha, p. 49.

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¹ MS. pp. 35(A)—35(B). In the Svādhiṣṭhāna-krama of the Pañca-krama we find it prescribed that in Yoga the Yogin first of all should worship himself as the all-pervading perfectly enlightened one; and then the employment of Mantras and Mudrās and the describing of the yogic circle and the performances of offering and sacrifice should all be made as magic; all performances for peace and well-being, and the Āvhicārika performances (like subduing or attracting others) should all be made as if they are all like the rainbow in the sky, and all enjoyment like that of sex-intercourse, etc., and songs and sounds, etc., should be made as if they are all like the moon reflected in water.

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mantra-mudrā-prayogañca maṇḍa(lā)di-vikalpanam |
bali-homa-kriyāṃ sarvāṃ kuryāt māyo-pamāṃ sadā ||
śāntikaṃ pauṣṭikaṃ cā’pi tathā vaśyā-bhicārakam |
ākarṣaṇa-di yat sarvaṃ kuryāt indrāyudho-pamaṃ ||
śṛṅgārā-dy-upabhogañ ca gīta-vādyā-di-sevanam |
kalāsu ca pravṛttiñ ca kuryād udaka-candra-vat ||

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MS. p. 27(B).

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of any action from his own standpoint, that is to say, he has no right to judge an action as right or wrong only because it produces some good or bad effect on him. The life of a Bodhisattva being pledged for the world at large, he may be required to do something which pleases others but may do him harm.¹

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¹ Thus we find in the *Tattva-siddhi*,—if a woman falls passionately in love with a Bodhisattva and if she be about to sacrifice her life for him, it is the bounden duty of the Bodhisattva to save her life by satisfying her. So the Bodhisattva should transgress the law even of the ten kinds of meritorious deed for the sake of others. *coktaṃ bhagavatā śīla-paṭale/bodhisattvena daśa-kuśalāny api parā-rthena khaṇḍayitavyāni/yathā kācit kāmā-rthinī kāminī strī bodhisattvaṃ prati prāṇān tyajet/tasyāḥ kāmādi-saṃsevanena prāṇa-sañcāraṃ kāryam/* Tattva-siddhi, MS. (C.L.B.) p. 205.

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The main emphasis of the Vajra-yānists is on the point that all the other religious systems are rather

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It is for this reason that it has been repeatedly said in many of the texts that there is nothing in the world, which a Bodhisattva-yogin should not do for the sake of the beings. (*Citta-viśuddhi-prakaraṇa*, Verse 33). It has also been repeatedly declared that the only criterion of morality is a sincere will for the good of others. Anything that is harmful to the beings is immoral by nature. Perfect enlightenment has been denied to the orthodox monks belonging to the Hina-yāna fold, though they strictly observe all the so-called discipline of morality. It is said in the *Guhyendu-tilaka* and other Tantras of the same type,—"There is nothing not to be done by a man whose mind is equipped with Prajñā and Upāya; he should always enjoy the five objects of desire most unhesitatingly. ** ** He, whose Bodhicitta is firm and whose mind is not attached to desires, need not have any doubt or hesitation in this Yoga, his success is guaranteed". *nāsti kiñcit akartavyaṃ prajño-pāyena cetasā|* *nirviśaṅkaḥ sadā bhūtvā bhoktavyam pañca-kāmakam ||*
* * * * * * * *bodhicittaṃ dṛḍhaṃ yasya niḥsaṅgā ca matir bhavet|* *vicikitsā naiva kartavyā tasyedaṃ sidhyate dhruvam ||* Quoted in the *Tattva-siddhi*, MS. p. 185.

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It has been said in the *Upāli-paripṛcchā-sūtra* that the passions of the Bodhisattva proceed out of deep compassion for the beings. Because of the aim and also the knowledge which accompany them they never affect the mind of the Bodhisattva. It is, therefore, said that with the Bodhicitta the Yogin himself becomes a god, such a Yogin need not inflict torture on him through hard penance; let him be the perfectly enlightened one through the enjoyment of bliss. Neither purity, nor rules and regulations, neither penance nor hard works are required for success; success is to be attained through an easy process of pleasure and bliss. (Quoted in the *Tattva-siddhi*, MS. pp. 188-189.)

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defective inasmuch as they prescribe the most unnatural repression on the mind of a man. Through the practices of the difficult vows, fastings and hard penances a man may inflict torture upon his body and mind, but through such an unnatural process nothing like final tranquillity of the mind can be attained. The principle of the Tāntric Buddhists in introducing the esoteric yogic practice is much akin to the principle of Homœopathy, viz., *Similia similibus curantur*. It has been found on investigation that the element, which causes a disease under particular circumstances, cures the same disease when applied by an expert physician in a different way, *i.e.*, in a very smaller dilution. The Vajra-yānists will also say, that the very action which binds a man down to the world of infinite misery may help him to attain liberation, if taken from a different perspective, *i.e.*, if taken with the knowledge of the Prajñā and the Upāya. This principle of the Vajra-yānists is found explained in many of the texts in the form of a set of analogies, the main purport of which is, what binds the fool, liberates the wise ; that which may prove fatal to ordinary people may conduce to health and happiness in the case of a scientist, that which drags the uninitiated fool to the hell of debauchery may help the initiated Yogin to attain perfect enlightenment.

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It has been said in the *Citta-viśuddhi-prakaraṇa* of Āryadeva, “Childish people are pleased with colour and beauty—the mediocre resort to renunciation, the highly enlightened ones, who know the ultimate nature of all form and beauty are liberated.”¹ What is real with childish fools is unreal with the Yogins,—through this principle the wise realise the end, they are neither bound down nor liberated (*i.e.*, they realise the state which transcends both bondage and liberation). Only the ignorant think of existence and extinction,—the seers of truth think neither of the world nor of nirvāṇa. In this ocean of the world our thought-constructions are the only disturbing elements; those great saints who have been able to transcend these constructive imaginations are liberated from the bondage of the world.¹ Ordinary people are as much obstructed by the poison of doubt as the really poisoned people are; the compassionate must eradicate all such doubts and move freely. As a transparent gem is coloured by the colour of other objects, so also is the gem of citta coloured by the constructive imaginations,² but by nature this gem of citta is free from the colour of imaginations—it is pure from the beginning—uncreate—essenceless and stainless.³ Whatever should not be done by foolish people should very carefully be done by the Yogin whose mind is pure.

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When women are charmed and enjoyed by a Yogin, whose mind is bent on the good, they conduce to the fulfilment of desires and also to liberation at the same time.⁴ By a methodical meditation on the supreme qualities of the gods a Yogin revels through his passionate mind and is again liberated through the fulfilment of the passions. As a man affected with poison again gets rid of it through poison, as the water in the ear is removed with the help of water poured in the ear, as a thorn is removed with the help of another thorn, in exactly the same manner the great sages get themselves relieved of all the passions with the help of the passions. As the washerman washes and cleanses his clothes with the help of some dirty substance, so should the wise remove the filth of his mind through filth (of enjoyable objects).⁵ As a glass becomes pure and transparent when rubbed with rubbish, in exactly the same manner when something bad is done and enjoyed by the learned, it becomes the destroyer of all wrong. When a lump of iron is thrown into water it certainly sinks down, but when it is shaped as a vessel it not only floats on water, but takes others also to the other shore; exactly in the same manner, if through the principles of Prajñā and Upāya the mind can be shaped into a vessel, one is not only liberated through the enjoyment of objects but relieves others also.¹ It is well known to all that milk destroys poison(?);

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but the very milk taken by the snake is transformed into strong poison. As the swan drinks milk out of a mixture of milk and water, so also the learned enjoy the poisonous objects of desire, but avoids bondage and attains liberation.² Then the author tries to show that no object of the world and no action whatsoever has got any absolute nature with a beneficial or a pernicious influence. The nature of the *dharmas*, depend mainly on the collocation of cause and conditions. A slight elemental change, or a slight change of condition may change the nature of an object altogether. From this the author draws the conclusion that human passions and the actions prompted by them have got no absolute nature of their own, and as such by themselves they are neither beneficial nor pernicious, neither virtuous nor vicious.

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As, for instance, poison, when taken in a scientific manner acts like nectar, and even food like buttered cakes, etc., when taken in an unscientific manner by the fool, acts like poison, so also the case with this *citta*, which, when purified by pure cause and conditions shines bereft of all thought-constructions, bereft of any attachment and is pure by nature.³ As the dim ray of a lamp, when supplied with fresh oil and wick, becomes unflickering light and removes all darkness, as the small seed of the banian tree with proper nourishment grows in exuberance with roots, branches, leaves and fruits and becomes a great tree, as the yellow colour in combination with lime undergoes a great change, so also is the element of the dharmas which admits of great change in association with Prajñā and Upāya.¹ Clarified butter (ghṛta), when taken with honey, has the chemical effect of poison ; but when it is duly taken, it has got a chemical action conducive to health. As copper, rubbed with some chemical substance, becomes pure gold, so the afflictions (kleśa), when purified with knowledge, becomes beneficial to men.

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The followers of the Hīnayāna have their fear of death at every step, but the followers of the Mahāyāna, accepting the religion of compassion and with their mind bent on relieving the whole world and having the bow of Prajñā in their hands, have no fear of anything whatsoever.² As the lotus grows in mud, but is never affected by the defects of mud, so the Yogin is never affected by the vices of imaginative construction and of the desires.³

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¹ *bālā rajyanti rūpeṣu vairāgyaṃ yānti madhyamāḥ |* *svabhāva-jñā vimucyante rūpasyo’ttama-buddhayaḥ ||*

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¹ Ibid., Verses 23-25.

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² Ibid., Verses 26-27.

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³ Ibid., Verse No. 28.

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⁴ Ibid., Verses 29-30.

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⁵ *viṣā-krānto yathā kaścid viṣenaiva tu nirviṣaḥ* || *karṇāj jalaṁ jalenaiva kaṇṭakenaiva kaṇṭakam* | *rāgenaiva tathā rāgam uddharanti manīṣiṇaḥ* || *yathaiva rajako vastraṁ malenaiva tu nirmalam* | *kuryād vijñas tathā’tmānaṁ malenaiva tu nirmalam* ||

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¹ Ibid., Verses 39-41.

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² Ibid., Verses 48-44.

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³ Ibid., Verses 45-46.

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¹ > yathā vahniḥ kṛśo'py eṣa taila-vartyā-di-saṃskṛtaḥ |

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² Ibid., Verses 50-58.

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³ > paṅka-jātaṃ yathā padmaṃ paṅka-doṣair na lipyate |

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The Tattva-siddhi of Śānta-rakṣita breathes the same spirit as the Citta-viśuddhi-prakaraṇa. There also we find that the beauty and objects of the world, when duly enjoyed with the knowledge of the Prajñā and Upāya, must produce some special religious effect (viśiṣṭa-phala-vāhakā bhavanti). It is a commonly accepted truth that some special substance has got the capacity of producing some special effect ; as, for instance, the fruit of the Emblic Myrobalan (āmalaka),

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dīpo nirmala-niṣkampaḥ sthira-timira-nāśanaḥ ||
vaṭa-bījaṃ yathā sūkṣmaṃ sahakāra-samanvitam |
śākhā-mūla-phalopetaṃ mahāvṛkṣa-vidhāyakam ||
haridrā-cūrṇa-saṃyogād varṇā-ntaram iti smṛtam |
prajño-pāya-samāyogād dharma-dhātus tathā viduḥ ||
Ibid., Verses 47-49.

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vikalpa-vāsanā-doṣais tathā yogī na lipyate ||

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which grows on earth, has got by nature an astringent taste; but that very *āmalaka* fruit, when it obtains the additional condition of being run through a process with milk, tastes very sweet. So it is found experimentally that the same thing may have different effects when affected or reformed through other different cause and conditions. If that be true, there cannot be any doubt about the fact that the objects of the world, when properly enjoyed with the yogic practices can produce some special religious effect. In this connection it is reminded that there is no such law that a particular thing will produce the same particular effect under all the varying circumstances; on the other hand, it is seen that one root-cause may produce entirely different effects under different collocation of conditions. The mysterious capacity of the combination of the cause and conditions is unknown and unthinkable even to the wise.¹ That being the case, it is to be admitted that sex-passions, which generally drag a man down to the level of the beasts, may also raise him to the level of the gods, if, however, these passions are reformed and purified with the knowledge of the Prajñā and Upāya. The authority of the *Ratna-kūṭa-sūtra* is quoted here, where it has been said that as in the cane-fields or in the paddy-fields fertilisation of the soil becomes of much help for the growth of corn, so also the reformed afflictions become beneficial to the Bodhisattva.²

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¹ *acint(y)atvāddhetu-pratyaya-sāmarthyasya sarvavidām* | MS. p. 184.

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² *tad yathā keṣu ikṣu-kṣetresu śāli-kṣetresu saṁskāra-kūṭa upakārī-bhūto bhavati/evam eva bodhisattvasya kleśa upakārī-bhūto bhavati.* Quoted in the *Tattva-siddhi*, MS. pp. 187-188.

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As the forms (*rūpa*) and objects (*dravya*) have no absolute nature of their own, and as their nature depends on the variation of conditions, and as associated with Prajñā and Upāya they, instead of fettering the mind of a man in the world of misery, can conduce to supreme bliss and final liberation, so also is the case with the bliss resulting from any kind of tactual sensation (*sparśa-nirjāta-sukha*). As in association with ignorance this bliss may be the cause of bondage and of illusion, in association with Prajñā and Upāya it may again lead one to a transcendental state. The whole thing depends on the motive or the mental attitude or the resolution (*saṅkalpa*). If the mental resolution (*manoratha-saṅkalpa*) be pure, everything will be beneficial not only to the self, but also to the whole world.

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Again it is said, this tactual pleasure may, through practice and a strict mental discipline, lead our mind to a transcendental absolute position, where the tranquillity of mind becomes a natural outcome of the tactual pleasure. As fine arts, through sights and sounds, can gradually lead our disciplined mind to a tranquil, supreme and permanent nature (*samāhita-parama-śāśvata-svabhāva*), so also is the case with this tactual bliss. Our deep emotions of passion, grief, fear, etc., and the bliss arising out of touch, etc., may also have a supreme transcendental effect on our mind. The intensity of an emotion can destroy all the waves of mentation and create an undisturbed oneness (*samarasa*) in the mind. It has been said that through those very emotions, through which the mind of a man becomes concentrated, the mind of a man becomes absorbed in the thatness just like the *Viśva-rūpa* jewel.¹ The whole thing hinges, as we have seen, on the condition of the subject. As when the *Ketaki* flower is eaten by an elephant, its scent transforms itself into musk, and when eaten by any one other than the elephant, it has different transformations, and as the *Ketaki* flower itself is not responsible for any of these transformations, so also is the case with our passions ; they produce entirely different effects under different circumstances mainly depending on the subjective conditions. Again as milk drunk by the snake results in poison and has the effect of nectar when drunk by others, so also is the case with the human passions.¹

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¹ *yena yena hi bhāvena manaḥ saṃyujyate nṛṇām |* *tena tanmayatāṃ yāti viśva-rūpo maṇir yathā ||* Quoted in the Commentary, *Marma-kalikā-tantra*, MS. p. 5(A); quoted in the *Tattva-siddhi*, MS. p. 197. It is also found in the *Heruka-tantra* with slight variations in reading. MS. (R.A.S.B., No. 11279) p. 74(B).

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¹ Ibid., MS. pp. 205-206.

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As a matter of fact, what really is the *vrata* (vow) of a Yogin of the Vajra-yāna? It is to view all the *dharmas* as well as the self from the perspective of perfect vacuity. If that be the fact, when a perfect Yogin sees some objects with his eyes, the objects are void, and so are his eyes ; how, then, can the void be affected by the void? The vow of a Yogin is to do everything with a compassionate mind and with the knowledge of the void ; and if these conditions are fulfilled, the Yogin can do whatever he likes without the least possible fear of his being fettered again in this world ; what is done with a compassionate, fearless mind, free from thought-constructions, is the best of all the vows.² Again what is *tapas* (penance)? It is said, “To perform all works with a fearless mind—to observe all the practices with a fearless mind,—this is the best kind of *tapas* (penances).”³

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² *punaś co'ktam/yoginām kīdṛśam vratam?* *sopāyaṁ sarva-karmāṇi nirviśaṅkaś caret sadā|* *nirvikalpena bhāvena vratānām uttamo-ttamaḥ ||* *Tattva-siddhi*, MS. p. 102.

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³ Ibid., p. 192.

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The arguments discussed above represent the general trend of thought found in the Buddhist Tantras in justification of the practices they adopt in their yogic *Sādhanā*. The same arguments are to be found in many of the Tantras and Dohās, explained with the help of various kinds of analogies. Thus it is said in the *Jvālāvali-vajra-mālā-tantra*,—“As mad elephants are subdued with the help of molasses and rice, so also should the highest knowledge be attained through a similar process. As some medicine is sweet to taste and at the same time cures disease, so also is the bliss coming out of the combination of the Prajñā and the Upāya,—it destroys the afflictions easily and smoothly ... ... Again, what to one is a rope for hanging oneself, is the remover of bondage to the other. O, the wonderful power of the followers of the excellent vehicle of Mahāyāna! Kāma here practices religion by deeply embracing women.”[¹] The commentary on the Dohākoṣa of Kāṇhu-pāda raises a question in this connection, Mahā-sukha is non-causal (nirnimitta), whereas the bliss arising out of the combination of the Prajñā and Upāya is causal; how then can the latter become the Mahā-sukha? The reply is that through the instructions of a good preceptor the causal bliss itself may become non-causal.[²] The authority of Saraha-pāda is also quoted here. He says, “This causal bliss becomes non-causal to the great, and it becomes of the nature of Mahā-sukha which is free from thought-constructions and is of the nature of self-produced knowledge.”[³] Again it may be questioned,—if at the time of the Sādhanā everything of the world is to be thought of as void in essence and illusory or magical in appearance, then even the Mantras, Mudrās and all the other accessories of Yoga become illusory and magical; how can then the Yoga have the capacity of destroying the afflictions of the mind? In reply it has been said, “A snake-charmer creates a magical pillar and then destroys it,—but though the pillar is destroyed for ever, men are relieved thereby from poison, etc. So also is the case with all the yogic practices.”¹

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¹ *yathaiva matta-mātaṅgā guḍa-taṇḍulakādinā |* *pravaśīkriyate vijñam vijñānañ ca mahādaye || (?)* *yathā mahausadhaṃ kiñcit sukhā-svādaṃ vyādhi-ghātakam |* *prajñopāya-sukhaṃ tadvat helayā kleśa-nāśanam ||*
* * * * * * *ekasya gala-pāśaḥ syād aparasya vandha-kartikā ||* *aho upāya-sāmarthyam mahā-yāna-suyāyinām |* *kāminīṃ gādham āliṅgya bhajanti (?) makaradhvajaḥ ||* MS. (B.N. No. Sanscrit 47) p. 22(B). In the Com. on the Marma-kalikā-tantra, these verses are quoted as belonging to the Gṛhya-vajra-virāsinī-sādhana, vide MS. p. 16(A).

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² *mahā-sukhaṃ ca nirnimittaṃ, tat kathaṃ tathā bhavitum arhati/san-nimitta-sukham eva sad-gurū-padeśān nirnimittaṃ bhavati/* MS. (Cambridge University library Add. 1699) p. 44(A).

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³ *yad idaṃ sannimitta-sukhaṃ tad eva mahatāṃ nimitta-parihī-nam,* *jñāna-svayambhū-rūpaṃ mahā-sukhaṃ kalpanā-śūnyam ||* Vyakta-bhāvā-nugata-tattva-siddhi, MS. p. 171.

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¹ *yathā gāruḍikaḥ stambhaṁ sādhayitvā vināśyati|* *sa tasmin cira-naṣṭe’pi viṣādīn upaśāmyati ||* Ascribed to Śānti-pāda, quoted in the *Subhāṣita-saṁgraha*, p. 67.

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In the *Hevajra-tantra* we find some verses in explanation of the Buddhist Tāntric practices, and as the *Hevajra-tantra* is quoted as authority in many connections in most other Tantras and commentaries, these verses of the *Hevajra-tantra* are made much use of in many of the texts and commentaries. It has been put into the mouth of the Lord himself that men may attain liberation through existence itself; they are destroyed by the fetters of worldly things, but are liberated through a critical examination of their nature.² Again it is said, “The very bliss, which causes death (in one case), is itself called the meditation.”³ It is further said, “Remove all your fetters of bondage through those very things through which people are ruined. People are deluded,—and they never know the truth, —and without truth they can never attain success.”⁴ The other arguments found in the text are substantially the same as discussed above.⁵

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² *bhāvenaiva vimucyante vajra-garbha mahā-kṛpa|* *badhyante bhāva-bandhena mucyante tat parīkṣayā ||* MS. p. 2(B).

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³ *maraṇaṁ yena saukhyena [sukheneha] tat-sukhaṁ dhyānam ucyate ||* Ibid., MS. p. 14(A).

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⁴ *yena yena tu badhyate lokas tena tena tu bandhanaṁ mucyate |* *loko muhyati na vetti tattvaṁ tattva-vivarjitaḥ siddhir na lapsye ||* Ibid., MS. p. 26(A).

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⁵ “A man versed in the science of poison counteracts the effect of poison with the same quantity of poison, which causes death to all the creatures. Meat-diet is prescribed for a patient attacked with gout,—and thus gout is cured by the application of another form of it; indeed the prescription of medicine often seems to be con-

c11.78

In the Dohās of Tillo-pāda, Saraha-pāda and Kāṇhu-pāda we meet with almost similar verses. Thus it is said,—as one engaged in the science of poison swallows poison and yet is not affected thereby, so does one enjoy the world without being attached to it.¹

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¹ jima visa bhakkhai visahi paluttā | [tima bhava bhuñjai bhavahi na juttā] Dohās of Tillo-pāda.

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tradictory to the ordinary experiences. The world is purified by the world itself,—false imaginations by greater imaginative constructions. As the water in the ear is removed by the application of water in the ear, so also the imaginative constructions of existence are to be purified in their turn by the corporal forms. The fire-burnt are again pacified through fire, so those who are burnt by the fire of passions are again pacified by the fire of passions. Through the same direful activities, through which all creatures are ruined, they are again liberated from the fetters of the world, on condition that the activities are all prompted by a spirit of universal compassion. People die through passions and are again liberated through the passions,—this is an apparently contradictory idea,—unknown to the ordinary orthodox Buddhists.”

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yenaiva viṣa-khaṇḍena mriyante sarva-jantavaḥ |
tenaiva viṣa-tattvajño-viṣeṇa sphoṭayed viṣam ||
yathā vāta-gṛhītasya māsa-bhakṣyaṃ pradīyate |
vātena hanyate vātaṃ viparīt auṣadhi-kalpanā ||
bhava-śuddho bhavenaiva vikalpaṃ pravikalpataḥ ||
karṇe toyaṃ yathāviṣṭaṃ prati-toyena kṛsyate |
tathā bhāva-vikalpo’pi ākāraiḥ śodhyate khalu ||
yathā pāvaka-dagdhāś ca sidhyante vahninā punaḥ |
tathā rāgāgni-dagdhāś ca sidhyante rāga-vahninā ||
yena yena tu badhyante jantavo raudra-karmaṇā|
sopāyena tu tenaiva mucyante bhava-vandhanāt ||
rāgeṇa badhyate loko rāgeṇaiva vimucyate |
viparīta-bhāvanā hyeṣā na jñātā buddha-tirthikaiḥ ||
MS. pp. 37(A)—37(B).
See Sampuṭikā. MS. p. 47(B).

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Cf. also,—yena cittena bālāś ca saṃsāre bandhanaṃ gatāḥ |
yoginas tena cittena sugatānāṃ gatirgatāḥ ||
Pañca-krama, MS. p. 26(B).

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yenaiva mūdhā badhyante buddhā krīḍanti tair iha |
Vajra-ḍāka-tantra, MS. (R.A.S.B. No. 3825).

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yena yenaivopāyena mattā gacchanty adho-gatim |
tena tenaivopāyena yogī śīghraṃ prasidhyati ||
Ekalla-vīra-caṇḍa-roṣaṇa-mahā-tantra, MS. p. 22(A).

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rāgeṇa hanyate rāgo vahni-dāhaś ca vahninā |
viṣato’pi viṣaṃ hanyāt upadeśa-prayogataḥ ||
* * * *
sarva-pāpaṃ kṣayaṃ kṛtvā viparītenaiva sidhyati |
Ibid., MS. p. 22(B).

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As one touches the foam of some drink and yet his hands are not besmeared with the drink, so also the Yogin, though revelling in the objects of pleasure, is not affected thereby.¹ As the lotus-leaf is never affected by the waves of water, though it is constantly in water, so also the mind of a Yogin, which, though always surrounded by objects of pleasure, is never affected by them in any way.² A Yogin, thus versed in the fundamental truth, is never disturbed by the objects of pleasure though he may indulge in them.³

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¹ visaa ramanta na visaa vilippai | ūara harai ṇa pāṇī cchippai || Dohās of Saraha-pāda.

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² punar yathā padma-patre jala-taraṅgaṁ gṛhītvā tat pānīyair na lipyate / tadotpannā ca padma-patrāmbho-vad iti vacanāt / evam abhyāso yoginaś ca / Comm. on the previous Dohā.

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³ emai jo mūla saranto | visahi na vāhai visaa ramanto || Dohās of Saraha-pāda.

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It should be remembered that wherever the citta clings to the objects of desire the ultimate nature of the self is not to be found ; the ultimate nature of the self can be realised through the enjoyment of the worldly objects only when the ultimate nature of the world is realised as the vacuity through the instructions of the preceptor, and in such a state there remains no

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It has been further said that the Yogin, who, even after he has been able to purify the objects of desire (through his transcendental knowledge), does not enjoy objects of pleasure, merely floats in the void; and for him there is every possibility of returning of the world of pleasure. His position is just like a crow in the ocean, which leaves the mast and hovers round and round and again returns to the same mast it left.

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visaa-visuddhe ṇaü ramai kevala suṇṇa carei |
uḍḍi vohia kāü jima paluṭṭia tahavi paḍei ||
Ibid.

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Again,—"Don't repress the desire for the objects of pleasure, says Saraha; if one does so, he will be destroyed by these objects of desire again, as is the case with fish, insects, the elephant, black-bees and the deer". (Fish, insects, the elephant, black-bees and the deer are attracted and killed by their particular attachment to flavour, beauty, tactual pleasure, smell and sound respectively.)

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visaāsatti ma bandha karu are vaḍha sarahe vutta |
miṇa paaṅgama kari bhamara pekkhaha hariṇaha jutta || Ibid.

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difference between the world and the vacuity as there is no difference between the water of a river and its waves.¹ Profound and secret are the ways of this cult, —who can say anything, and who can hear? Who is really engaged in this cult? This path is just like an underground passage of a fort. As it is very advantageous to enter into a fort and to capture it and destroy it through this underground passage, so also is this path,—very advantageous to capture the fort of the illusory world and to destroy it through the destruction of all the imaginary constructions of the mind; but as there is the wicked dust in the passage which kills the inexperienced, but cannot do any harm to the experienced, so also there is in this path a great risk, which kills the uninitiate but can be overcome only by the initiate.² When water enters into water, there is produced the *Samarasa*; similarly when mind enters into the pure consciousness of vacuity, it reaches the final state, where the virtues and vices of the world go neither for nor against the Yogin.³

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¹ *jatta vi cittahi vipphurai* tatta vi ṇāha sarūa | aṇṇa taraṅga ki aṇṇa jalu bhava-sama khasama sarūa || *Ibid.*

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² *kāsu kahijjai* ko suṇai etthu kajjasu liṇa | duṭṭha suraṅga-dhūli jima hia-jāa hiahi liṇa || *Ibid.*

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³ *jatta vi paisai* jalahi jalu tattai samarasa hoi | dosa-guṇāra citta tahā vaḍha parivakkha ṇa koi || *Ibid.*

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The *fraternities* of the Middle Ages, which were so numerous and so varied in their objects, were not all of the same origin. Some were religious, some social, some charitable, and some industrial. The religious guilds, or *gilds*, as they were often called, were associations of laymen for the purpose of performing religious duties, such as the maintenance of a chaplain, the celebration of masses, or the support of a hospital. The social guilds were formed for the purpose of mutual aid and good fellowship, and often included in their objects the relief of the poor, the sick, and the aged. The charitable guilds were established for the purpose of supporting hospitals, almshouses, and other institutions of mercy. The industrial guilds, or *craft guilds*, were associations of men engaged in the same trade or industry, and were formed for the purpose of regulating the trade, protecting the interests of the members, and maintaining the quality of their work.

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The craft guilds, which became so powerful in the later Middle Ages, were the successors of the earlier *collegia* of the Roman Empire. The *collegia* were associations of artisans and tradesmen, which were recognized by the state and had a legal existence. When the Roman Empire fell, these associations were largely destroyed, but the idea of association for mutual protection and the regulation of trade survived. In the early Middle Ages, the *gilds* began to reappear, and by the twelfth century they were firmly established in many of the cities of Europe.

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The craft guilds were organized on a democratic basis, and every member had a voice in the management of the guild's affairs. The officers were elected by the members, and the rules and regulations were made by the guild as a whole. The guilds had the power to fix prices, to regulate the hours of labor, and to determine the conditions of apprenticeship. They also had the power to punish members who violated the rules, and to expel those who were guilty of serious offenses. The guilds were thus a powerful force in the economic life of the Middle Ages, and they played an important part in the development of the modern industrial system.

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The decline of the craft guilds began in the sixteenth century, when the rise of the factory system and the growth of international trade made it difficult for the small, local guilds to compete with the larger and more efficient industrial organizations. The guilds were also weakened by the growth of the power of the state, which began to regulate trade and industry directly, and by the rise of the capitalist class, which sought to break the power of the guilds and to establish a system of free competition. By the end of the eighteenth century, the craft guilds had largely disappeared, but their influence lived on in the trade unions and other labor organizations of the modern world.

Cites (15)