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An Introduction to Tantric Buddhism c6.s2: (ii) The Salient Features of Mahāyāna as Contrasted with Hīnayāna

An Introduction to Tāntric Buddhism c6.s2

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Contents

(ii) The Salient Features of Mahāyāna as Contrasted with Hīnayāna

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Buddhism has been historically as well as philosophically divided into two great schools, *viz.*, Hīnayāna and Mahāyāna. By Hīnayāna is generally meant the Pāli Buddhism of the earlier period and it is also popularly known as the Southern Buddhism and its followers are found in the Southern countries like Ceylon, Burma, Siam, Java, Sumatra, etc.; by Mahāyāna Buddhism on the other hand is meant the later Sanskrit Buddhism current in the Northern countries like China, Japan, Tibet, Nepal, etc.¹ The later Buddhists would style their school as the Mahāyāna or the ‘great vehicle’ in contrast to the narrow and orthodox school of the Buddhists of earlier times, whom they would designate as belonging to the Hīnayāna or the ‘little vehicle’. In the Mahāyāna-sūtrālaṅkāra of Asaṅga the Hīnayāna has been condemned as very narrow because of its five points of difference with the Mahāyāna. These are, firstly, the narrow aim of self-liberation and, secondly, the narrow teachings to realise that aim, thirdly, the narrow method applied for this realisation, fourthly, insufficiency of equipment and, fifthly, the shortness of time within which final liberation is guaranteed.² In fact, the Mahāyāna school is always characterised by a broadness of outlook, and deep sympathy for the suffering beings. But it may be observed in this connection that as on the one hand this freedom of thought, broadness of outlook and the spirit of liberalism saved Buddhism from the walls of narrow scholastic dogmatism and raised it from the selfish hankering after personal liberation to the sublimity of a religion for the suffering humanity, on the other hand, it contained also germs of indiscipline and revelry of wild thoughts which were responsible for the incorporation of all sorts of practices in Buddhism.

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¹ Many Mahāyāna scholars of recent times, however, think that the Mahāyāna view is as old as the Hīnayāna.

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² āśayasyo’ padeśasya prayogasya virodhataḥ| upastambhasya kālasya yat hīnam hīnam eva tat || Mahāyāna-sūtrālaṅkāra. Ch. I, Verse 10. — Lévi’s Edition.

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The word Mahāyāna, as we find it mentioned in the *Awakening of faith in Mahāyāna* (*Mahāyāna-śraddho-tpāda-sūtra*) of Aśvaghoṣa,¹ meant the highest principle or reality, or the knowledge which is the primordial source of the universe as a whole; and all the objects, animate and inanimate, are nothing but the manifestations of that one unchanging and immutable principle, and only through it final salvation of all beings is possible.² But historically Mahāyāna refers to the school of Buddhism which is styled by its adherents to be the great way to salvation because of the universality and generosity of its tenets. It is held traditionally that after the death of Buddha, there arose a great controversy among his disciples as to the correct interpretation of the sayings of the Master and also about the rules of discipline indispensable for a monk. Great councils were convened to settle these controversies. It is said that in the second council held in Vesālī the controversy finally ended in a split up among the Buddhists and the dissenters convened another great assembly (*Mahāsaṅgha*) to have a separate school of their own and they were known as the Mahāsāṅghikas. In this way, as time was passing on, the controversy between these radicalists and the orthodox elders (*thera*) began to be gradually accelerated and it finally resulted in the growth of the two separate schools; the canonical tenets of the elders being styled as Hīnayāna, and that of the latter as Mahāyāna. Without entering into the details of the historical development of the Mahāyāna doctrine, it will be sufficient for our purpose here to draw an outline of the leading tenets of the Mahāyāna school and its points of controversy with Hīnayāna.

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¹ Modern scholars are, however, loath to accept Aśvaghoṣa as the author of the work *Mahāyāna-śraddho-tpāda-sūtra*. There is again a great deal of controversy over the time of Aśvaghoṣa; but Teitaro Suzuki says,—"Suffice it to say that he lived at the time extending from the latter half of the first century before Christ to about 50 or 80 A.D."

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¹ —*Awakening of Faith in Mahāyāna*, p. 17.

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² *Ibid.*, pp. 58-54.

(A) The Final Goal

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As for the final goal the Mahāyānists believe that every man—nay, every being of the world is a potential Buddha; he has within him all the possibilities of becoming a *Samyak-sambuddha*, i.e., the perfectly enlightened one. Consequently the idea of Arhathood of the Hinayānists was replaced by the idea of Bodhisattvahood of the Mahāyānists. The general aim of the Hinayānists was to attain Arhathood and thus through *nirvāṇa* or absolute extinction to be liberated from the cycle of birth and death. But this final extinction through *nirvāṇa* is not the ultimate goal of the Mahāyānists; their aim is to become a Bodhisattva. Here comes in the question of universal compassion (*mahā-karuṇā*) which is one of the cardinal principles of Mahāyāna. The Bodhisattva never accepts *nirvāṇa* though by meritorious and righteous deeds he becomes entitled to it. He deliberately postpones his own salvation until the whole world of suffering beings be saved. His life is pledged for the salvation of the world, he never cares for his own. Even after being entitled to final liberation the Bodhisattva works for the uplift of the whole world and of his own accord he is ready to wait for time eternal until every suffering creature of the world attains perfect knowledge and becomes a Buddha Himself. Ordinary people of little merit would always take refuge in the all-compassionate Bodhisattva. To pray for the compassion of the Bodhisattva was deemed as one of the best ways of being relieved of all suffering.¹ The grand example of Avalokiteśvara Bodhisattva’s renunciation of Nirvāṇa in favour of suffering humanity, described in the *Kāraṇḍa-vyūha*, will inspire a feeling of sublime reverence for all time to come.¹ The whole of Mahāyāna literature breathes this spirit of universal compassion, and all the metaphysical and religious discourses are introduced avowedly with the intention of rendering help to the afflicted in getting rid of their afflictions. In the text *Bodhi-caryā-vatāra* we find the Bodhisattva praying for the distressed:—"With clasped hands do I pray to all the perfectly enlightened ones in all the quarters,—light the lamp of religion for all that are fallen in sorrow for attachment. With clasping hands do I beseech all the self-controlled wise, who are bent on attaining the final extinction, to wait for innumerable ages,—let not this world be dark (without them). Let by all the good I have thus attained through these (righteous) performances all the sorrows of all the beings be completely pacified. . . . All my existence—all my happiness—all my good in the three worlds unconditionally do I renounce for the fulfilment of the desire of all beings. My mind is bent on *Nirvāṇa*, and everything has to be renounced for the sake of *Nirvāṇa*, but if I am to sacrifice everything let all be given to all things. . . . Let them sport with my body—let them laugh—and amuse ; when the body is dedicated to them why should I take any more thought of it? Let them do any work they please to do with this body of mine ; my only prayer is,—let not any evil come to them with reference to me. Let all that will speak ill of me—that will do harm to me, that will laugh at me—be entitled to attain perfect knowledge.”¹

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¹ *Cf. samanvāharantu māṃ buddhāḥ kṛpā-karuṇā-cetasaḥ | ye ca daśa-diśi loke tiṣṭhanti dvipado-ttamāḥ || yac ca me pātakaṃ karma kṛtaṃ pūrvaṃ sudāruṇam | tat sarvaṃ deśayiṣyāmi sthito daśa-balā-grataḥ || etc.* —*Śikṣā-samuccayaḥ*. Bendall’s Edition, pp. 160-61.

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¹ "It is said that when Avalokiteśvara Bodhisattva, after obtaining *Nirvāṇa*, was about to merge himself in the eternal *śūnya* from the summit of the Sumeru mountain he heard an uproar from a very remote quarter and became remorseful. He sat there forthwith in intense meditation, and immediately realised that the uproar was nothing but the wailings of the people at the disappearance of Avalokiteśvara, the all-compassionate Bodhisattva. In their utter helplessness at the prospect of losing the support of Avalokiteśvara, who was their only saviour from their worldly miseries and sufferings, they rent the sky with their bitter wailings. Avalokiteśvara was deeply moved and when he came to know about this he resolved within himself not to accept his well-merited emancipation so long as even a single individual on earth remained unemancipated." *An Introduction to Buddhist Esoterism*—by Dr. B. Bhattacharya, p. 29.

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¹ Ch. III, Verses 4-6, 10-11, 18-15. O. P. 105-2

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This feature of universal compassion was one of the most important factors that popularised Buddhism very much in the lands far and wide and gave the religion a deep humanitarian tone. It is by this emphasis on compassion and also on devotion that Mahāyāna Buddhism could very easily attract the sympathy and attention of millions of people and could also harmonise itself with the current religious trend of India.

(B) The Three Schools,—Śrāvaka-yāna, Pratyeka-buddha-yāna and Bodhisattva-yāna

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In connection with this question of universal compassion we may mention the general scheme of classifying the Buddhists into the Śrāvakas (i.e., the hearers), the Pratyeka-Buddhas (i.e., the individualistic Buddhas) and the Bodhisattvas (i.e., those whose very essence is knowledge). The Śrāvakas are those who always listen to the preachings of the learned and try to follow them in their life. They try to understand the four noble truths (ārya-satya) and to attain parinirvāṇa through a right comprehension of them. They have mastery over the ten good actions, possess mental power (citta), but they have not the universal compassion (mahā-karuṇā) which might inspire them for the well-being of the suffering world. They are always busy with themselves and so are regarded as the lowest in the rank. The middle place is assigned to the Pratyeka-Buddhas. They are bent on self-control and generally lead a solitary retired life. They do not require the instructions of any teacher to guide them at every step. They can comprehend the cause and conditions (hetu-pratyaya) of things, and through a right comprehension of the nature of causality attain salvation for themselves. They too do not possess karuṇā and so are ranked below the Bodhisattvas. The Bodhisattvas are those who are more purified, have full control over their passions, have the right knowledge of all the expedients, have great resolution; perfect enlightenment is their only support. Through their upward march through the ten stages (daśa-bhūmi) and through the constant practice of the pāramitās (the best virtues) they attain Buddhahood; and they attain Buddhahood never for their own sake, but for saving the whole world. In them mahā-karuṇā has got the fullest scope and so they are the best of men.

(C) The Pāramitās

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In this connection we should also have a cursory glance at the Mahāyānic conception of the six pāramitās or the best moral virtues and the conception of the Bodhicitta or the mind as enlightenment, and the production of the Bodhicitta (bodhi-citto-tpāda). The pāramitās are the moral virtues through the practice of which the aspirer crosses the sea of existence and reaches the other shore.¹ These are charity (dāna), good conduct (śīla), forbearance (kṣānti), spiritual energy (vīrya), meditation (dhyāna) and knowledge (prajñā). After these virtues are acquired and the moral ground is prepared the aspirer is to produce a strong resolution in his heart for the realisation of his citta as perfect enlightenment. This is what is called the production of the Bodhicitta. The Bodhicitta proper involves within it two elements, viz., perfect enlightenment of the nature of void (śūnyatā) and universal compassion for the beings (karuṇā); these śūnyatā and karuṇā combined together give rise to Bodhicitta. After its production, the Bodhicitta proceeds on in an upward march through ten different stages which are called the bodhisattva-bhūmis (i.e., the stages of the Bodhisattva). The first of these is the stage of *Pramuditā* or the stage of delight or joy. Here the Bodhisattva rises from the cold, self-sufficing and nihilistic conception of *nirvāṇa* to a higher spiritual contemplation. The second is styled as the *Vimalā* or the stage free from all defilement. The third is the *Prabhākarī* or that which brightens; in this stage the Bodhisattva attains a clear insight—an intellectual light about the nature of the dharmas. The fourth stage is the *Arciṣmatī* or ‘full of flames’,—these flames are the flames of Bodhi which burn to ashes all the passions and ignorance. At this stage the Bodhisattva practises thirty-seven virtues called *bodhi-pākṣikas* which mature the *bodhi* to perfection. The next is the *Sudurjayā* stage or the stage which is almost invincible. This is a stage from which no evil passion or temptation can move the Bodhisattva. The sixth stage is called the *Abhimukhī*, where the Bodhisattva is almost face to face with *prajñā* or the highest knowledge. The seventh is the *Duraṅgamā* which literally means ‘going far away’. In this stage the Bodhisattva attains the knowledge of the expedience which will help him in the attainment of salvation. Though he himself abides here by the principles of void and non-duality and desirelessness, yet his compassion for beings keeps him engaged in the activities for the well-being of all the creatures. The eighth is the stage of *Acalā*, which means ‘immovable’. The next is the *Sādhumati* or the ‘good will’; when the Bodhisattva reaches such a stage all the sentient beings are benefited by his attainment of the highest perfect knowledge. The tenth or the last is the stage of *Dharma-megha* (literally the ‘clouds of dharma’), where the Bodhisattva attains perfect knowledge, great compassion, love and sympathy for all the sentient beings. When this last stage of *Dharma-megha* is reached, the aspirer becomes a perfect Bodhisattva.¹

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¹ Pāramitā literally means that which takes one to the other shore.

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¹ For a detailed study of the subject see *Aspects of Mahāyāna Buddhism And Its Relation to Hīnayāna*, by Dr. N. Dutt, Ch. IV.

(D) The Docetic Conception of the Three Kāyas

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Another departure of the Mahāyānists from the Hinayānists is in the docetic conception of the personality of Buddha. The Hinayānists conceived Buddha only as a historical personage in the life and activities of Śākyamuni. But with the Mahāyānists Buddha is no particular historical man,—he is the ultimate principle as the totality of things or as the cosmic unity. But this highest principle has three aspects which are known as the three kāyas of the Buddha. These are,—(i) Dharma-kāya, (ii) Sambhoga-kāya and (iii) Nirmāṇa-kāya. The word Dharma-kāya is often explained as the body of the laws (*dharma*); and it may also be remembered that Buddha is said to have told his disciples that his teachings should be recognised as his own immortal body. But the word *dharma* is generally used in the Mahāyāna texts in the sense of ‘entity’; and the Dharma-kāya means the ‘thatness’ (*tathatā-rūpa*) of all the entities; it is in other words the *dharma-dhātu* or the primordial element underlying all that exists. It has been also termed as the Svabhāva-kāya’, i.e., the body of the ultimate nature. It is described as devoid of all characters, but possessing eternal and innumerable qualities. It is neither the mind, nor matter—nor something different from them both. The nature of the Dharma-kāya is described in the *Avataṃsaka-sūtra*² in the following manner:—"The Dharmakāya, though manifesting itself in the triple world, is free from impurities and desires. It unfolds itself here, there, and everywhere responding to the call of karma. It is not an individual reality, it is not a false existence, but is universal and pure. It comes from nowhere, it goes to nowhere; it does not assert itself, nor is it subject to annihilation. It is for ever serene and eternal. It is the One, devoid of all determinations. This body of Dharma has no boundary, no quarters, but is embodied in all bodies. Its freedom or spontaneity is incomprehensible, its spiritual presence in things corporeal is incomprehensible. All forms of corporeality are involved therein, it is able to create all things. Assuming any concrete material body as required by the nature and condition of karma, it illuminates all creations. Though it is the treasure of intelligence, it is void of particularity. There is no place in the universe where this body does not prevail. The universe becomes, but this body for ever remains. It is free from all opposites and contraries, yet it is working in all things to lead them to Nirvāṇa.”

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¹ But we shall see later on that Svabhāva-kāya or Sahaja-kāya or Vajra-kāya was another kāya invented by the Vajrayānists and the Sahajiyās as the ultimate stage even after the Dharma-kāya. This stage has also been styled as the Mahāsukha-kāya.

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² Quoted in Suzuki's *Outlines of Mahāyāna Buddhism*, pp. 228-24.

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The Sambhoga-kāya is generally explained as the ‘body of bliss’ or the refulgent body of the Buddha. It is a very subtle body which manifests itself in the various conditions of bliss in the superhuman beings for preaching the noble truths and for arousing in the mind of all the Śrāvakas, Pratyeka-Buddhas and the lay Bodhisattvas joy, delight and love for the noble religion (sad-dharma). It has been explained in the Śata-sāhasrikā and the Pañcaviṃśati-sāhasrikā as “an exceedingly refulgent body, from every pore of which streamed forth countless brilliant rays of light, illuminating the lokadhātus as innumerable as the sands of the Ganges. When this body stretched out its tongue, innumerable rays of light issued forth from it, and on each ray of light was found a lotus of thousand petals on which was seated a Tathāgata-vigraha (an image of the Tathāgata, a sort of Nirmāṇa-kāya), preaching to Bodhisattvas, Gṛhasthas (householders), Pravrajitas (recluses) and others the dharma consisting of the six pāramitās.”

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¹ See *Aspects Of Mahāyāna Buddhism And Its Relation To Hīnayāna* by Dr. N. Dutt, p. 118.

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The Nirmāṇa-kāya is the historical personage of the Buddha or the ‘Body of Transformation’. The historical Buddha is regarded as an incarnation of the eternal Tathāgata or the manifestation in condescension of the Dharma-tathatā. Śākyasiṃha Buddha is only one of the incarnations of the Dharma-kāya Buddha and his life and teachings are sought to be explained as the ‘apparent doings of a phantom of the Buddha-kāya’,—‘a shadow image created to follow the ways of the world’ only to convince the ignorant people of the world that it is not beyond the capacity of a man to attain perfection. It is generally taken that the human Buddhas (Mānuṣi Buddha) like Dīpaṅkara, Kaśyapa, Gautama Buddha, Maitreya and others represent the Nirmāṇa-kāya; the Dhyānī Bodhisattvas (Vairocana, Akṣobhya and others) in their body of supreme happiness represent the Sambhoga-kāya and the Dhyānī Buddha in Nirvāṇa in a state of complete union with all the truths for time eternal represents the Dharma-kāya.

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This Tri-kāya theory of the Mahāyānists developed these cosmological and ontological significance only in course of its evolution. Before it developed these cosmological and ontological meanings, the theory as mere Buddhalogy would be explained in the following manner:—¹

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¹ See an article, *The Three Bodies of a Buddha* by Prof. La Vallée Pousin in the J.R.A.S., 1906, pp. 945-46.

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The quintessence of Buddha is Pure Enlightenment (bodhi) or perfect Wisdom (prajñā-pāramitā), or knowledge of the Law (dharma), i.e., the absolute truth. By attaining this knowledge nirvāṇa is also attained; the Dharma-kāya Buddha is the Buddha in nirvāṇa (Samādhi-kāya). Again, before he is merged into nirvāṇa he possesses and enjoys, for his own sake and for others’ welfare, the fruit of his charitable behaviour as a Bodhisattva, and this is the Body of Enjoyment or the Beatific Body (Sambhoga-kāya). Again, human beings known as the Buddhas, who are created by the magical contrivances represent the Created Body (*Nirmāṇa-kāya*).

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But after the Tri-kāya theory acquires an ontological and cosmological meaning, Dharma-kāya means the void and permanent reality underlying the things (*dharma*), or, in other words, the uncharacterised pure consciousness (*vijñapti-mātra*). Sambhoga-kāya means the Dharma-kāya evolved as Being, Bliss, Charity, Radiance, or the Intellect, individualised as the Bodhisattva. Nirmāṇa-kāya is the Transformation Body, which is the same as consciousness defiled and individualised as ‘common people’ (*pṛthag-jana*). Later on, this Buddhalogy, cosmology and ontology were all confusedly mixed up,—and we find the three Kāyas mentioned more often in their composite sense than either as pure Buddhalogy or as pure ontology.

(E) Predominance of Philosophical Thoughts

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Another notable phase of Mahāyāna Buddhism is the exuberant growth of philosophical thought in it. The sayings of the Master were sought to be brought to their logical and metaphysical conclusions, and there developed distinct systems of philosophical thoughts with a host of staunch exponents. The most remarkable is the evolution of the import of the word *śūnyatā*. In the old canonical works the term *śūnyatā* probably implied the momentary or the transitory nature of all entities; but the Mādhyamikas built up a new system of uncompromising nihilism through a different interpretation of the word *śūnyatā* and the Vijñānavādins again in their turn contradicted the Mādhyamikas offering another interpretation of the word.

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But we should not lay undue stress on the divisions of schools or sects thus made. It has often been said that these divisions of the *yānas* are merely provisional; they may be regarded as being relative and as having only methodological interest; the *Laṅkāvatāra* says, they (the *yānas*) are but different methods suitable to different persons ; when the mind returns to its original abode, there is neither the path nor any one who adopts it.¹ *Śrāvaka-yāna*, *Pratyeka-Buddha-yāna* and *Bodhisattva-yāna* have often been said to be the different stages in the same school of faith,—a *Śrāvaka* by further endeavour becomes a *Pratyeka-Buddha*, and he again by further endeavour becomes a *Bodhisattva* and the *Bodhisattva* becomes the *Buddha* himself.

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¹ *citte tu vai parāvṛtte na yānaṃ na ca yāyinaḥ* || *Laṅkāvatāra-sūtra*. Lévi’s Edition, p. 822. *Cf.* also:— *parāvṛtte tu vai citte na yānaṃ nāpi yāninaḥ* || *Advaya-vajra-saṃgraha*, p. 22. *Cf.* also:— *upāya-kauśalya mameva rūpaṃ* *yat trīṇi yānāny upadarśayāmi*| *ekaṃ tu yānaṃ hi nayaś ca eka* *ekā cyaṃ deśanā nāyakānām* || *Saddharma-puṇḍarīka*, Ch. II, Verse 69. The Bibliotheca Buddhica Publication.

Cites (11)