Pramāṇa · Search · About · API

The Bodhisattva Doctrine in Buddhist Sanskrit Literature c6.s2: Phases of Development of the Doctrine

The Bodhisattva Doctrine in Buddhist Sanskrit Literature c6.s2

Language
English

Phases of Development of the Doctrine

c6.s2.1

The *bodhisattva* doctrine probably originated in the second century B.C. The word *bodhisatta* is very old and occurs in the *Pāli Nikāyas*. Gautama Buddha speaks of himself as a *bodhisatta*, when he refers to the time before the attainment of Enlightenment. This seems to be the earliest signification of the word. It was applied to Gautama Buddha as he was in his last earthly life before the night of Enlightenment. The following clause recurs frequently in the *Majjhima-Nikāya*: “In the days before my Enlightenment, when as yet I was only a *bodhisatta*, etc.”57 The word also seems to be used only in connection with a Buddha’s last life in the *Mahāpadāna-sutta* (*Dīgha-Nikāya* ii, 13) and the *Acchariya-abbhuta-dhamma-sutta* (*Majjhima-Nikāya* iii, 119). In the *Kathā-vatthu*, certain questions are raised with regard to the *bodhisatta*’s actions; the signs on his body, his rebirth in a state of woe, and the possibility of his harbouring heretical opinions or practising asceticism are discussed.58 It is clear that the previous lives of Gautama Buddha and other saints have now begun to excite interest and speculation. But there was no new systematic doctrine in the middle of the third century B.C., when the *Kathā-vatthu* was composed. The idea of a *bodhisattva*’s renunciation of personal *nirvāna* is stated clearly and unequivocally in the *Pr. Pā Aṣṭa.*; and *bodhi* is set up as the new ideal in the *Sad. Pu.* These treatises belong mainly to the first century B.C. We may infer that the Mahāyāna doctrine in its earliest form was definitely formulated in the second century B.C. This was also the period of the Hindu revival under the Śuṅga dynasty. Most scholars are of opinion that the Mahāyāna doctrine originated in the centuries immediately preceding the Christian era. M. Walleser says: “Welchen Umfang die Herstellung von Mahāyānasūtras zur zeit des dritten Konzils des Kaniṣka . . . . . erreicht hat, erhellt aus der Notiz des Tāranātha, dass damals die 1,000 Abschnitte umfassende Ratnakūtagruppe und das ebenso umfangreiche Avataṃsaka entstanden sein . . . . . . so ist andererseits doch nicht unwahrscheinlich, dass die grosse Masse der Mahāyānasūtras noch in die vorchristliche Zeit zurückreicht.” 59 W. McGovern writes: “The religious aspect of the Mahāyāna developed sometime immediately prior to the Christian era.” K. Saunders assigns the date 50 B.C.–A.D. 50 to what he calls “the half-way Mahāyāna”. S. Dutt suggests 100 B.C. for the first beginnings of the Mahāyāna. We may regard the second century B.C. as the chronological starting-point for the development of the bodhisattva doctrine.

c6.s2.2

In the course of several centuries (second century B.C. to seventh century A.D.), the bodhisattva doctrine was modified in its essential features. The chief lines of development may be indicated as follows :—

c6.s2.3

(1) In the early Mahāyāna, the bodhisattvas are inferior and subordinate to the Buddhas; but they acquire greater importance in course of time till they are at last regarded as equal to the Buddhas in many respects. They are also endowed with ten balas, four vaiçāradyas and eighteen āveṇika-dharmas.60 They are to be worshipped like the Buddhas, or even in preference to them. This gradual exaltation of the bodhisattvas at the expense of the Buddhas culminates in the apotheosis of Avalokiteçvara, who is declared to be a kind of “Buddha-maker”. He helps others to acquire Buddhahood, while he himself remains the eternal bodhisattva.

c6.s2.4

(2) In the early Mahāyāna, Wisdom and Mercy are regarded as equally important, and a bodhisattva must possess the double Equipment of Knowledge and Merit (jñāna-sambhāra, puṇya-sambhāra).61 In fact, Wisdom is considered to be somewhat more important than Mercy. Mañjuçrī, who represents Wisdom, is invoked in the opening verses of several treatises, and he is praised in the *Sad. Pu.* The glorification of Wisdom reaches its climax in the writings of the *Mādhyamika* school of philosophy, which was founded by Nāgārjuna in the second century A.D. *Prajñā* is extolled *ad nauseam*, while Mercy (*karuṇā*) is not discussed in detail. But the later Mahāyāna emphasizes Mercy more than Wisdom. It is emotional rather than argumentative. It sometimes seems to ignore and discard Wisdom altogether, as when it declares that *karuṇā* is the one thing needful for a *bodhisattva*.62 As this ideal gains ground, the *bodhisattva* Avalokiteçvara increases in importance till he becomes the supreme and unique *bodhisattva*. The Mahāyāna slowly passes from the ascendancy of Mañjuçrī to the reign of Avalokiteçvara.

c6.s2.5

(3) The early Mahāyāna attaches equal importance to social life and to ascetic retirement from the world. It is, in fact, inclined to exalt the layman-householder and the women in comparison with the solitary recluses. But the later Mahāyāna reverts to the old ideal of celibacy and forest-life.63 The monk triumphs in the end even in the Mahāyāna, and an inferior position is assigned to family life and to women.

c6.s2.6

(4) Many practices of Yoga are borrowed from external sources by the *Vijñāna-vādin* (or *Yogācāra, Yogācārya*) school of philosophers (fourth century A.D.). A *bodhisattva* is described as the *yogin* par excellence. The number of *samādhis* (modes of Concentration) is increased, and wonderful properties are ascribed to them.64 *Yoga*, which is endemic in India, is accepted as an integral part of the *bodhisattva* doctrine.

c6.s2.7

(5) The quest of *bodhi* (Enlightenment) is relegated to the background, while active Altruism in this world of sin and suffering is regarded as almost sufficient in itself. The early Mahāyāna teaches that altruistic activity is one of the means of attaining Enlightenment, which is the goal. But the later Mahāyāna seems to forget even that far-off destination and prefers to loiter on the way. A *bodhisattva* need not be in a hurry to win *bodhi* and become a Buddha, as he can help and succour all living beings more effectively during his mundane career as a *bodhisattva*.65 This idea also resulted in the subordination of the Buddhas to the *bodhisattvas*. There is a marked tendency to regard Altruism as an end in itself. Avalokiteçvara does not seem to think seriously of becoming a Buddha.

c6.s2.8

(6) The early Mahāyāna recognises an oligarchy of *bodhisattvas*, and eight are mentioned as a group of equal rank.66

c6.s2.9

Perhaps Mañjuçrī is regarded as *primus inter pares*. In the later Mahāyāna, the oligarchy is changed into an absolute monarchy. Avalokiteçvara is first and the rest nowhere. He absorbs all the virtues, powers, functions and prerogatives of the other *bodhisattvas*, because he is the Lord of Mercy. He occupies the supreme position in the Universe and reigns without a rival.

c6.s2.10

Karuṇā (mercy, pity, love, compassion) and its personified symbol, Avalokiteçvara, are all-in-all. This is the last word and the consummation of the Mahāyāna.

c6.s2.11

III.

Cites (6)