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The System of the Vedanta according to Badarayana's Brahma-Sutras and Cankara's Commentary c7.s6: XX. The Doctrine of Identity

The System of the Vedânta according to Bâdarâyana's Brahma-Sûtras and Çankara's Commentary c7.s6

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Contents

XX. The Doctrine of Identity

1. Introductory

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THERE is a changeable element in things (their forms, qualities and conditions) which is subject to the law of causality, and an element of continuity (substance) which is not subject to this law. It was only by neglecting this difference, and by putting the whole complex of preceding and succeeding existence under the idea of cause and effect, that Çankara was able to deduce, from the persistence of the inner nature of things, that cause and effect are fundamentally identical notwithstanding all differences of outer form.

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In the beginning of the preceding Chapter (above p. 255) we saw how our author infers the identity of Brahman and the world from the identity of cause and effect. Yet this philosophical derivation of the chief position of the whole system of the Vedānta appears as a mere supplement. The same proposition has already been brought forward and explained on a theological basis (2, 1, 14); p. 443, 12: "The effect "is the manifested world, beginning with Ākāça; the cause is "the highest Brahman. With this cause, in the sense of the "highest reality (*paramārthataḥ*), the effect is identical, hav"ing no existence beyond it. Why is this?—Because of the "word of the Scripture, as to change depending only on "words, etc."

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The passage from which this inference is drawn, is the sixth Prapāṭhaka of the Chāndogya-Upanishad, one of the most important portions of the Veda, which we shall give here in part translated, and in part in the form of an epitome, in order afterwards to analyse Çankara's reflections on it.

2. Tat tvam asi—That art thou

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Chândogya-Upanishad VI.

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1. “Çvetaketu was the son of [Uddâlaka] Âruṇi. His father said to him: ‘Çvetaketu, go forth to study Brahman, for one of our family, dear one, is not wont to remain unlearned, and [merely] an appendage of Brahmanhood.’—So he went when he was twelve years old, to study, and at twenty-four he had studied all the Vedas, and returned uplifted in mind, fancying himself wise, and very proud. Then his father said to him: ‘Çvetaketu! since, dear one, thou art so uplifted in mind, fancying thyself so wise, and since thou art so proud, hast thou enquired concerning the teaching through which [even] the unheard is [already] heard, what is not understood is understood, and what is unknown becomes known?’—‘What then, venerable Sir, is this teaching?’—‘Just as, dear one, by one lump of clay everything which consists of clay is known, and the change is dependent only on words, a mere name, it is only clay in reality;—just as, beloved, by one copper button everything made of copper is known, the change is dependent only on words, a mere name, and it is only copper in reality;—just as, dear one, by one pair of nail-scissors everything made of iron is known, the change is dependent only on words, a mere name, and it is only iron in reality;—so, dear one, is it with this teaching.’—‘Of a truth my venerable teachers did not know this themselves, for if they had known it, why did they not tell it to me? But do thou, venerable one, now make it clear to me!’—‘So be it, dear one!’—”

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2—3. “Existent alone, dear one, was this in the beginning, one only, and without a second. Some, it is true, say that this was non-Existent in the beginning, one only, without a second; that from this non-Existent was born the Existent. But how could this be, dear one? how could the Existent be born from non-Existent?”—Here follows the passage given above (p. 230ff.) in which Âruṇi explains to his son how the one Existent put forth from itself the three primordial elements: heat, water, and food, and entered into these with the living self (*jīva ātman*, that is, the individual soul).

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4-7. This is followed by the teaching of the triplication of the elements. As the three primordial elements came forth from the one Existent, so all things in the world proceed anew from the three primordial elements: the red in things is radiance (*tejas*, the primal fire), the white is water, the black is food. This is exemplified in the natural phenomena of fire (*agni*), the sun, moon, and lightning, and it is said each time: "Vanished is the fire-being of the fire (the sun-being of the sun, etc.), the change is dependent only on words, a mere name, only the three forms are there in reality." Knowing this, the wise men of old said: "Henceforth can no one bring forth anything which has not been heard, known, and understood by us!" For they knew that what was unknown to them also could only be a combination of these three primordial elements; from them, like all else, the human body is built up, whereby, like the cream in milk, the finest part rises and forms the psychical organs, so that Manas is formed from food, breath from water, speech from heat. (For more on this subject, see Chap. XVII, 6, above p. 240ff.) For this reason the mind of mankind is weakened by continual fasting, and strengthened again by taking food, just as the glimmering ember which remains, can be rekindled by adding fresh fuel to it. [According to our system, Manas, *Prâna*, and *Vâc* did not come into being, but are the eternal companions of the soul. For solution of this contradiction see later on.]

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8. On the conditions of a) Sleep, b) Hunger, c) Thirst, and d) Death.—

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a) When a man sleeps, he enters into the Existent, for he then goes to himself (*svam apîta*), therefore it is said: he sleeps (*svapiti*). "As a bird bound by a cord flies hither and thither, and after it has nowhere found a place of rest, settles on the place where it is bound (*bandhanam* as in *nau-bandhanam*) so, dear one, Manas flies hither and thither, and after it has nowhere found a place of rest, it returns into Life, for Life is the place where Manas is bound." (Cf. Chap. XII, 4, c, above p. 190ff.)

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b) If a man is hungry and satiates himself, this is an effect (çuṅgam) which as such must have a cause (mūlam). The satisfaction as effect has food as cause, food as effect, has water as cause, water as effect has heat as cause, heat as effect has the Existent as cause; all these creatures have the Existent as cause, the Existent as support, the Existent as basis.

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c) If a man is thirsty and drinks, this effect is caused by water; water as effect has heat as cause, heat as effect has the Existent as cause; all these creatures have the Existent as cause, the Existent as support, the Existent as basis.

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d) "When, dear one, a man departs hence, speech enters to Manas, Manas to Life, Life to heat, heat to the highest godhead: that which is that subtle (unknowable) essence, of its being is the universe, that is the Real, that is the Soul, that art thou, O Çvetaketu!"

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9. "When, dear one, the bees prepare honey, they gather the juices from many sorts of trees and unite the nectar in one. As in these nectars, no difference is maintained between the trees whose juice they are, so, of a truth, beloved, all these creatures also, when (in deep sleep, and death) they return into the Existent, have no consciousness that they return into the Existent. Whether tiger, or lion, or wolf, or boar, or worm, or bird, or fly, or gnat: whatever they may be, to that form they return (yad-yad bhavanti, tad [or with Çañkara p. 433, 12. 797, 16 tad-tad] ābhavanti). — That which is that subtle essence, of its being is this universe, that is the Real, that is the Soul, that art thou, O Çvetaketu!"

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10. "These streams, dear one, flow eastward towards the morning, and westward towards the evening; from the ocean [they come] and to the ocean they return; in the ocean they are born. As these [in the ocean whence they take their rise] know not that they are this stream or that—so, of a truth, beloved, all these creatures, when they again go forth from the Existent, know not that they again go forth from the Existent. Whether they are here tiger, or lion, or wolf, or boar, or worm, or bird, or fly, or gnat: whatever they “may be, to that form they return.¹⁰⁴—That which is this “subtle essence, of its being is the universe, that is the Real, “that is the Soul, that art thou, O Çvetaketu!”

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¹⁰⁴ According to the Commentary to Chând. (p. 447, 19: samânam anyat) the reading is here exactly the same as in the preceding paragraph; not as with Windischmann in the first passage (Sancara p. 180) na ha instead of the certainly strange ta' iha (we expect tâ' iha), nor in the second with Roer sampadya instead of yad-yad; and the latter's separation of tadâ bhavanti is to be rejected, not only because the Commentator (p. 445, 14: punar âbhavanti) is against it (for he often errs), but also because then it rather ought to be tato bhavanti in the first passage.

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11. “If, dear one, a man cuts this great tree at the root, “it drips because it lives, if he cuts it in the middle, it drips “because it lives, if he cuts it at the top, it drips because it “lives; it stands penetrated through and through by the living “Self, exuberant and joyful. But if life leaves one bough, it “withers, if it leaves a second, it withers, if it leaves a third, “it withers, if it leaves the whole tree, the whole tree withers. “Thus also shalt thou know, dear one, said he: this [body] “certainly dies when the living one leaves it, but the living “one does not die. That which is this subtle essence, of its “being is the universe, that is the Real, that is the Soul, that “art thou, O Çvetaketu!”

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12. “ ‘Bring hither a fruit from yonder Nyagrodha tree.’ “ ‘Here it is, venerable one.’—‘Divide it.’—‘It is divided, “venerable one.’—‘What seest thou therein?’—‘I see here, “ ‘venerable one, very small seeds.’—‘Divide one of them.’— “ ‘It is divided, venerable one.’—‘What seest thou therein?’— “ ‘Nothing at all, venerable one.’—Then said he: ‘the subtle “essence which thou canst not perceive, beloved, from that “truly has this great Nyagrodha tree arisen. Believe me, “dear one, that which is this subtle essence, of its being is “the universe, that is the Real, that is the Soul, that art “thou, O Çvetaketu!’”

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13. “ ‘Here, put this piece of salt into water, and come “back to me to-morrow.’ He did so. Then said he: ‘Bring “me the salt which you put in water yesterday.’—He looked “for it, but did not find it, for it had melted.—‘Try on this ‘side!—How does it taste?’—‘Salt!’—‘Try in the middle!— ‘How does it taste?’—‘Salt!’—‘Try on that side!—How does ‘it taste?’—‘Salt!’—‘Leave it alone, and sit down near me.’ ‘He did so (and he said): ‘It exists still.’—Then said he: ‘Truly so also thou canst not perceive the Existent here (in ‘the body) but it is nevertheless in it. That which is this ‘subtle essence, of its being is this universe, that is the Real, ‘that is the Soul, that art thou, O Çvetaketu!’”

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14. “Like as, dear one, a man whom they have led with ‘eyes bound from the land of the Gandhâras and then let ‘loose in the desert, wanders towards east, or north, or south, ‘because he was led there with eyes bound, and was set loose ‘with eyes bound; but after some one has taken off his ban- ‘dage, and said to him: ‘That way dwell the Gandhâras, go ‘that way,’ he goes on asking his way from village to village, ‘with knowledge and intelligence, and returns home to the ‘Gandhâras,—thus a man who has found a teacher here, con- ‘sciously says: ‘I will only endure this [worldly action] until ‘I have attained deliverance, then will I go home.’—That ‘which is this subtle essence, of its being is this universe, ‘that is the Real, that is the Soul, that art thou, O Çveta- ‘ketu!”

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15. “Round a man who is sick unto death, sit his relations, ‘and ask him: ‘Dost thou know me? Dost thou know me?’— ‘So long as his speech has not entered into Manas, his Manas ‘into Life, Life into heat, and heat into the highest godhead, ‘so long he recognises them; but after his speech has entered ‘into Manas, his Manas into Life, Life into heat, and heat ‘into the highest godhead, he knows them no more.—That ‘which is this subtle essence, of its being is this universe, ‘that is the Real, that is the Soul, that art thou, O Çveta- ‘ketu!”

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16. “They bring a man with his hands bound, and cry: ‘He is a robber, he has committed theft; heat the axe for ‘him!’—If he is the doer, he makes himself untrue, speaking ‘untruth, he wraps himself in untruth, seizes the glowing axe, ‘is burned, and therefore executed; but if he is not the doer, ‘he makes himself true; telling the truth, he wraps himself in “truth, seizes the glowing axe, is not burned, and therefore “is set free. [That is, as p. 103, 9. 447, 6 explains this simile: “from untruth come bonds, from truth comes freedom.] That “by which he did not burn himself [the truth], of its being “is the universe, that is the Real, that is the Soul, that art “thou, O Çvetaketu!”

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“Thus was he taught by him.”

3. The Doctrine of Identity in the Vedânta System

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Sûtram 2, 1, 14.

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(a) The Extinction of plurality in Brahman

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For the Hellenic consciousness, the existence of the world has its purpose in itself. Christianity, inclining to the Old Testament, seeks to understand Creation through the love of God towards mankind, towards a thing to be created, though not yet existing. According to the Indian view, the creation of the world rests upon a moral necessity. The deeds done by the soul in an earlier existence must be atoned for. To be the place of this atonement, is the only purpose of this huge world. Its plurality originates solely from two factors, which are indicated by the two words bhoktar and bhogyam: on the one side, is the bhoktar, he who enjoys, that is, the (individual) soul, the subject of enjoyment and also of sorrow, and on the other side, the bhogyam, what is enjoyed, the fruit (phalam) of works done in an earlier existence, the object of the enjoyment and suffering of the soul. The world is this expansion of the Existent into the enjoying soul and the fruit to be enjoyed, and nothing else.

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This division into enjoyer and fruit, so Çankara explains, is true so long as we remain on the empirical (literally: practical, vyâvahârika) standpoint; it is no longer true, when we rise to the metaphysical (literally: absolutely real: pâramârthika) point of view (p. 443, 9); for it, the whole worldly action is one with Brahman, its cause. This is confirmed by the passage of the Chândogya-Upanishad, which we have just given. The comparison with the lump of clay (Chând, 6, 1, above p. 262) teaches that, just as all transformation of the clay into vessels only depend upon words (we might say: upon presentations) while in reality it is nothing but clay, and clay only. So all the transformations of the world, are Brahman alone, and beyond this can have no being (p. 444). In this sense, the Scripture (Chând. 6, 4—7, above p. 263) reduces all phenomena in the world to the three primitive elements, and the three primitive elements (Chând. 6, 2—3, above p. 263. 230) back to the Existent, to Brahman (p. 444, 13). And the same thing is expressed by the formula at the end of the sections Chând. 6, 8—16, that the world, and (in the words: *tat tvam asi*, that art thou) that the soul, (*tvam*) is identical with Brahman (*tat*). [This also is the meaning of *etad vai tad*, in Kâṭh. 4, 3. 5. 6 etc., above p. 155.] Thereby all plurality is declared to be unreal, as is expressly taught in the verse (Bṛih. 4, 4, 19, above p. 195):

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"In spirit musing shall they see:
"That here is no plurality.
"Their never-ending death they weave
"Who here a manifold perceive."

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As the space in a vessel is identical with cosmic space, as the mirage is identical with the salt plain, so that it disappears when we examine it more closely, and in itself (*sva-rûpeṇa*) is not perceptible, so too, the world-extension of enjoyer and enjoyed has no existence beyond Brahman (p. 445, 7).

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(b) The Relation of Unity to Plurality

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How are we to consider the relation between the unity of the Existent and the manifoldness of its developments? Is Brahman related to the many powers (above p. 227 ff.) as a tree is related to its branches, because, as a tree, it forms a unity, while, as it spreads into branches, it is manifold, or as an ocean to the manifoldness of its foam, waves, etc., or as the single clay to the plurality of vessels,—in such a manner that with the knowledge of unity, liberation is bound up, while worldly action and religious worship are connected with the knowledge of plurality?—By no means; rather, as in the simile of the lump of clay, only the clay is real, while all its transformations are only dependent on words, that is, unreal, so also in the world, the highest cause, that is, Brahman, is the one and only reality, and the embodied soul is no other than Brahman himself (p. 445, 10—446, 9).

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This Brahmanhood of the soul does not require to be called into existence by effort, but is already existent, therefore only the inborn idea of the separateness of the soul requires to be refuted by the Scripture, as (in the well-known simile) by the knowledge that it is a piece of rope, the opinion that it was a snake is refuted.¹⁰⁵ But if the separate existence of the soul be refuted, the whole worldly action which depends on it, and on account of which a plurality was assumed for Brahman is refuted at the same time. And this non-existence of the worldly action is not only conditional (in deep sleep and death), but, as the words *tat tvam asi* show, it is to be accepted unconditionally, and without restriction to any given circumstances. The simile of the thief also, *Chând.* 6, 16, above p. 266), as it shows that bondage follows from false speech, while freedom follows from truth-speaking, teaches that only unity is true in the fullest sense, and that manifoldness, on the contrary, proceeds from false perception. Were both unity and manifoldness real, we could not say of one whose standpoint is that of worldly action, that he is caught in untruth, and "weaves a never-ending death;" it could not then be said: "from knowledge comes deliverance," [*jñânân mokshaḥ*, —a sentence also found in *Kapila* 3, 23, *jñânân muktiḥ* and which, in two words, gives food for much thought]; moreover, then the knowledge of manifoldness could not be annihilated by the knowledge of unity (p. 446, 9 —447, 14).

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¹⁰⁵ The simile of a rope (Brahman) which is taken for a snake (the world), occurs on p. 268, 12. 432, 14. 446, 12. 817, 12. 822, 13 and with greater detail on p. 353, 7: "As in the dark, one takes a fallen rope for a snake, and flees from it in fear and trembling, and another says to him: 'Fear not; it is not a snake, it is only a cord;' and he, when he has understood this, ceases to fear the snake, to tremble and flee, and as there is not the slightest difference in the thing itself, at the time it was taken for a snake, and at the time this opinion disappeared,—just so is this also to be considered."

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(c) How is the Knowledge of Unity possible, from the standpoint of plurality?

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Only unity exists; plurality does not exist. This statement abolishes not only the empirical means of knowledge, perception etc., but also the Vedic canon of command and prohibition (compare above p. 56). But does it not also abolish the canon of liberation? For this certainly presupposes the duality of pupil and teacher, and thus rests upon untruth; and how can the teaching of unity from a false standpoint be true (p. 448, 5)?—

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To this, it is to be replied that all empirical action, until knowledge comes, is just as true as are all dream faces, until awakening comes. For every being has forgotten its original identity with Brahman, and takes the empirical "I" and "mine" for the Self and its qualities. This is true until the knowledge of identity with Brahman arises.—True, but not beyond this! A rope snake cannot bite, a mirage does not really quench thirst; and so it is in dream: the poison of a dream-snake does not really kill, and dream water does not really wet!—Certainly not! But as (in dream) we perceive the cause, the water and the bite, in like manner we perceive the effect, death and wetness.—But this effect is still not real! [How can the real Brahman be known by means of unreal teaching?]—The effect is unreal, but the perception of it is real, and it is not removed by awakening. For when a person wakes, he perceives it to be untrue that the snake and the water were there, but not that he perceived them. In just the same way, what is perceived in dream is untrue, but the perception of it is true (therefore, as Çankara remarks in passing, the opinion of the materialists, that the body is the Self, is refuted). It is also to be remembered that real events are often indicated beforehand by unreal dreams; does not the scripture say (Chând. 5, 2, 9), that love-adventures in dream betoken luck, and when we dream of a black man with black teeth, it signifies speedy death (according to Ait. âr. 3, 2, 4, 17). It is also well known that those who are acquainted with the rules and their exceptions (the interpreters of dreams) prophesy good and evil from dreams. Thus the true is known from the untrue, in the same way as from written signs which are soundless, the real sounds are perceived (p. 447, 14—451, 4).

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From these discussions, we are to understand that in the non-reality of the world of appearances, the soul remains real. The teaching is directed to the soul, and thus it does not cease when the world of appearances ceases.

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(d) The Value of the Doctrine of Unity.

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The perception of unity is final, for, as it contains everything in itself, it does not leave anything beyond itself to be desired, as do the ritual precepts; it is attainable, as the Scripture shows by its examples and exhortations; it is not aimless, for its fruit is the cessation of Ignorance; and it is infallible, for there is no further knowledge which could remove it, for the Brahman unlike everything else, is not a mere transformation; He is the Highest, free from all change, and all qualities; only by the knowledge of Brahman, not by that of his transformations, can liberation be attained (p. 451, 4 to 454, 1).

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(e) Criticism of Anthropomorphism.

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The Vedânta maintains, on the one hand, the unity and non-duality of Brahman, which permits of no Being beyond itself, and, on the other hand, it calls Brahman “the Lord,” and sets him up as ruler of the world. But the designations of Brahman as Ruler, Almighty, Omniscient, refer only to the extension in names and forms caused by Ignorance, and are not to be accepted in the highest sense. For we must distinguish between the two standpoints: the standpoint of worldly actions (*vyavahâra-avasthâ*) and the standpoint of the highest reality (*paramârtha-avasthâ*). From the latter standpoint, the Scripture teaches the non-existence of all worldly actions by sentences like: “But when all has become his own ‘Self for anyone, how could he see anyone else?” etc. (above p. 175). From the first standpoint, it admits the relation of ruler and ruled, etc.; as when it is said (above p. 195): “He is the Lord of the Universe, he is the Ruler of Beings, “he is the Guardian of Beings.” And these are precisely the two points of view admitted by the author of the Sûtras, since on the one hand he teaches identity, while on the other hand he allows the concepts of Brahman as an ocean (in contradistinction to its waves, foam, bubbles, 2, 1. 13; the inadequacy of this picture is repeatedly brought into prominence, p. 445, 13. 446, 4. 456, 8, cf. 515, 11) and similar ideas, which presuppose the existence of the world, and are to be regarded as belonging to the adoration of Brahman possessed of attributes (p. 454, 1—456, 10) (above p. 102 ff.).

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—Thus our authors confine the anthropomorphic ideas of God as a personality, which have their root in realism, to exoteric theology.

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