[Pramāṇa](https://indike.org/pramana/) › [Studies](https://indike.org/pramana/ins) › [Religion and philosophy](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.religion) › [Early Monastic Buddhism](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.religion.dutt-1941) › v1.c19 # Early Monastic Buddhism v1.c19: Chapter XVI: Growth of the Saṅgha Early Monastic Buddhism v1.c19 - **Language:** English ## Contents - [v1.c19.s1 Saṅgha: its beginning](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.religion.dutt-1941.v1.c19.s1) — 17 parts - [v1.c19.s2 Rules for Admission](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.religion.dutt-1941.v1.c19.s2) — 13 parts - [v1.c19.s3 Bars to Admission](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.religion.dutt-1941.v1.c19.s3) — 5 parts - [v1.c19.s4 Nissayas](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.religion.dutt-1941.v1.c19.s4) — 12 parts - [v1.c19.s5 Residence and Articles of furniture](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.religion.dutt-1941.v1.c19.s5) — 21 parts - [v1.c19.s6 Dress of Monks](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.religion.dutt-1941.v1.c19.s6) — 8 parts - [v1.c19.s7 Pūtimuttabhesajjam](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.religion.dutt-1941.v1.c19.s7) — 2 parts - [v1.c19.s8 Piṇḍiyālopabhojanam](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.religion.dutt-1941.v1.c19.s8) — 10 parts - [v1.c19.s9 Uposatha and Pātimokkha Assemblies](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.religion.dutt-1941.v1.c19.s9) — 14 parts - [v1.c19.s10 Vassāvāsa](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.religion.dutt-1941.v1.c19.s10) — 7 parts - [v1.c19.s11 Pavāraṇā](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.religion.dutt-1941.v1.c19.s11) — 3 parts - [v1.c19.s12 Kaṭhina](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.religion.dutt-1941.v1.c19.s12) — 5 parts - [v1.c19.s13 Formation of the order of nuns](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.religion.dutt-1941.v1.c19.s13) — 20 parts ### Chapter XVI: Growth of the Saṅgha ### [v1.c19.2](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.religion.dutt-1941.v1.c19.2) Before and at the time of the appearance of Buddhism monasticism in the form it obtained among the Buddhists was unknown in India. There were brāhmanic and non-brāhmanic recluses who dwelt, or moved about, in groups,¹ and there were also in the forests and outskirts of towns or villages hermitages (āśramas) wherein lived not only those who had taken the third and fourth āśramas of life, viz., vānaprastha and yati but also life-long sannyāsins with their disciples including sometimes the members of their families, male and female, who had taken the vow of brahmacarya. In the Nikāyas,² we come across accounts referring to rich khattiyas and brāhmaṇas, who after having their head and moustache shaven, body unbesmeared with oil, and putting on deer-skins and using deer horns for scratching his body, took resort to hermitages newly built on the outskirt of the town, and dwelt there with wife and purohita, living on cow's milk. Leading such a life they performed also sacrifices, offering animal-victims and so forth. There were also āśramas of life-long sannyāsins like Ārāḍa Kālāma and Rudraka Rāmaputra. In these āśramas the Guru or the chief teacher not only acted as the spiritual head imparting esoteric and exoteric religious instructions but also regulated the daily life of the inmates according to the usages of brahmacārins. ### [v1.c19.3](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.religion.dutt-1941.v1.c19.3) ¹ See above, ch. III. ### [v1.c19.4](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.religion.dutt-1941.v1.c19.4) ² Majjhima, I, p. 343-4. ### [v1.c19.5](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.religion.dutt-1941.v1.c19.5) There is nothing on record to show that there existed in the pre-Buddhist days any code of disciplinary rules governing the life of a \*brahmacārin\*. The earliest Dharmasūtras are those of Gautama, Baudhāyana and Āpastamba but their date cannot be put earlier than 600 B.C. even according to Prof. Kane.¹ There were sūtra-works of Saṅkha-Likhita and Paiṭhanasī from which quotations are given in the Dharmasūtras, but references to Ācāryas, the Vedas, the Sāmavidhāna Brāhmaṇa, Taittirīya and other Āraṇyakas, as sources of much of the materials of the Dharmasūtras prove only that in the seventh century B.C. there did not exist any code for brahmacārins though there were usages for their guidance. In this connection we may refer to the Vekhanassas² a brāhmanical order referred to in the Nikāyas. Both Gautama and Baudhāyana speak of a Vaikhānasa or Vikhānasa sūtra, and in fact base the chapter on the duties of a recluse on some such work, for which later on the term Vikhānasa became a synonym for vānaprastha.³ ### [v1.c19.6](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.religion.dutt-1941.v1.c19.6) ¹ Kane, \*History of the Dharmaśāstra\*, p. 19. ### [v1.c19.7](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.religion.dutt-1941.v1.c19.7) ² See \*ante\*., p. 33. ### [v1.c19.8](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.religion.dutt-1941.v1.c19.8) ³ For \*Vaikhānasa-dharma-praśna\*, see Kane, \*op. cit.\*, pp. 105 ff. ### [v1.c19.9](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.religion.dutt-1941.v1.c19.9) Pāṇini speaks of a \*Bhikṣu-sūtra\* while Baudhāyana and Āpastamba use the term ‘bhikṣu’ instead of ‘parivrājaka’ and mention that bhikṣus lived at one place during the rainy season.⁴ Evidently the writers of dharma-sūtras had in mind, besides the brāhmaṇayatis who were also called bhikṣus, the Buddhist bhikṣus as also the parivrājakas whose number became fairly large in the 6th century B.C. These parivrājakas or wandering brahmacārins lived a form of communal life, but there is no evidence of their having any code. Their daily life, it seems, was regulated by their chief according to the traditional usage.⁵ In the \*Aṅguttara Nikāya\*¹ there are a few hints relating to dress, food, bed and seats of non-Buddhistic parivrājakas, which are practically the same as detailed in a previous chapter.² ### [v1.c19.10](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.religion.dutt-1941.v1.c19.10) ⁴ Kane, \*op. cit.\*, p. 19. ### [v1.c19.11](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.religion.dutt-1941.v1.c19.11) ⁵ See for details Vidhusekhara Sastri, \*Pātimokkha\*, Intro., pp. 21 ff.; ### [v1.c19.12](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.religion.dutt-1941.v1.c19.12) ¹ \*Aṅguttara\*, i, p. 240: aññatitthiyā paribbājakā paññāpenti cīvarapavivekam, piṇḍapātapavivekam and senāsanapavivekam. ### [v1.c19.13](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.religion.dutt-1941.v1.c19.13) ² See \*ante\*., p. 18 re. ascetic practices. ### [v1.c19.14](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.religion.dutt-1941.v1.c19.14) The Jainas may be pointed as the only pre-Buddhistic religious order which had a monastic system and a code, which has come down to us in the form of the \*Ācāraṅga-sūtra\*. This work contains rules adapted to the ethical principles of the Jainas. It is not improbable that the Buddhists formulated their rules partly on the lines of the Jainas, their Uposathas, Pajjusana, etc. ### [v1.c19.15](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.religion.dutt-1941.v1.c19.15) The Buddhists adopted more or less the general directions scattered in the brāhmanic and non-brāhmanic literatures for the brahmacārins and sannyāsins and it was after some years had passed when the number of followers had grown fairly large that Buddha thought of framing a code of disciplinary rules in keeping with the teaching promulgated by him i.e., the \*majjhimā-paṭipadā\* which kept clear of the two extreme forms of life, viz., that of a rigorous non-brāhmanic ascetic and that of an ease-loving householder. He laid more emphasis on the control of mind (\*citta\*) than on body (\*kāya\*) and speech (\*vācā\*),³ and so he formulated a code of rules which answered to his ideal. The life of a monk living in a monastery but practising meditation in a forest or cemetery was Buddha’s ideal and so he directed that the monasteries should be located at a lonely spot outside but not very far from the limits of a town or a village so that the monks ### [v1.c19.16](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.religion.dutt-1941.v1.c19.16) ³ In contrast to the Jainas who regarded \*kāyadaṇḍa\* as more important than \*manodaṇḍa\*. See \*Majjhima\*, I, p. 372. ### [v1.c19.17](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.religion.dutt-1941.v1.c19.17) Miss D. Bhagvat, \*Early Buddhist Jurisprudence\*, 1939, ch. I; Batua, \*Pre-Buddhistic Indian Philosophy\*, p. 241. ### [v1.c19.18](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.religion.dutt-1941.v1.c19.18) might have little trouble in collecting their food and dress and other requisites from the towns people or village folk for the bare maintenance of the physical frame. The ideal monastery was a cave-dwelling in the hills around a town or village, vow of poverty was the rule, and alms was the sole support. Though magnificent Vihāras were built and all possible comforts compatible with a monk’s life were provided, the bhikkhus were disciplined to look upon them with discorn and utilise them just so far as was necessary to maintain their body. Abuses there must have been, as all bhikkhus were not imbued with the ideals of a bhikkhu life, and so the Buddhists could not help formulating a code to curb the recalcitrants. Once the code was started, it went on being revised and added on, and ultimately receiving the shape of a Piṭaka in five parts. Every aspect of a monk’s life had to be dealt with, to wit, the probationary period and initiation, training under the Ācariya and Upajjhāya, daily life including food, dress and other articles of use, residence and the mode of residing in it, religious ceremonies like the Uposatha, Vassāvāsa, Pavāraṇā, and Kaṭhina, ecclesiastical procedure for punishment and absolution from guilt, dissensions in the Saṅgha and the methods of settling disputes among monks.¹ With the introduction of the initiation of women, another code came into existence to regulate the life of the nuns. This code was more or less a supplement to the code of the monks, having some special rules for the conduct of the nuns.¹ ### [v1.c19.19](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.religion.dutt-1941.v1.c19.19) ¹ Cf. Aṅguttara, i, p. 99; iv, p. 144; pātimokkham, pātimokkhuddesā, pātimokkhathapanam, pavaraṇā, pavaraṇā-thapanam, tajjaniyakammam, nissayak., pabbājaniyak., paṭisāraṇiyak., ukkhepaniyak., parivāsadānam, mūlāya paṭikassanam, mānattadānam, abbhānam, vosāraṇiyam, nissāraṇiyam, upasampadā, ñattik., ñattidutiyak, ñatticatuthak., sammukhāvinayo, sativinayo, amūḷhavinayo, paṭiññātakaraṇam yebbuyyasikā, tassapāpiyyasikā, tiṇavatthārako. See also Aṅguttara, I, p. 231 ff. sādhikam diyaḍḍhasatam sikkhāpadam anvaddhamāsam uddesam āgacchati. ### [v1.c19.20](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.religion.dutt-1941.v1.c19.20) ¹ See Infra, ch. XVIII. ### Saṅgha: its beginning ### [v1.c19.s1.1](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.religion.dutt-1941.v1.c19.s1.1) Buddha started his mission as an eremetical teacher and had hardly any intention of forming a Saṅgha. The Vinaya tradition shows that the idea of a Saṅgha was thrust upon him, but once he had taken it up, he did his best to place it on as thorough a basis as possible. Every delinquency on the part of a bhikkhu reported to him had his immediate attention, and a rule was framed to avert its future repetition, and this was done with a view to, in the words of Buddha, \*appasannānaṃ va pasādāya pasannāṃ va bhiyyobhāvāya\* (to make the non-believers believing and the believers doubling their faith). ### [v1.c19.s1.2](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.religion.dutt-1941.v1.c19.s1.2) The story of his forming the first band of disciples is related thus in the Vinaya Piṭaka:² ### [v1.c19.s1.3](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.religion.dutt-1941.v1.c19.s1.3) ² Vinaya, I, 1-24. ### [v1.c19.s1.4](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.religion.dutt-1941.v1.c19.s1.4) Buddha's first converts were the five brahmins Aññāta-koṇḍañña, Vappa, Bhaddiya, Mahānāma and Assaji, his quondam companions.³ The words in which they sought admission into the order were simply "\*labheyyāmā mayaṃ bhante bhagavato santike pabbajjaṃ, labheyyāmā upasampadan ti.\*" There was no formality, the only reply given by the Teacher was "\*etha bhikkhavo ti.\*" The next batch of persons to accept his teaching was Yasa of Benares and his four friends Vimala, Subāhu, Puṇṇaji and Gavampati, and his fifty other friends, and the procedure for admission was the same as above. Now there were in all sixty disciples who were all arhats. Buddha then sent out the sixty arhats to as many places as they could reach, directing them not to go to one place even in twos.¹ He himself went to Uruvela Senā-nigamo. ### [v1.c19.s1.5](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.religion.dutt-1941.v1.c19.s1.5) ³ See above, pp. 101-2, 137. ### [v1.c19.s1.6](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.religion.dutt-1941.v1.c19.s1.6) ¹ \*Vinaya\*, I, p. 19-20. Mr. S. Dutt interprets it differently in his \*Early Buddhist Monachism\*. ### [v1.c19.s1.7](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.religion.dutt-1941.v1.c19.s1.7) The \*Vinaya\* is silent about the activities of the sixty arhats though it mentions the difficulties experienced by them in admitting persons into the order by having to present them before Buddha for the purpose of ordination.² It relates in detail how Buddha converted the thirty Bhaddavaggiya youths and the Jatila teachers, the three Kassapas with their disciples,³ and how one of the five brāhmaṇa ascetics, Assaji, was instrumental in bringing about the conversion of Sāriputta. The ordination so far effected was made by Buddha personally by uttering the two words: “\*ehi bhikkhu\*”. Neither the \*Vinaya\* nor the \*Nikāyas\* continue the story of conversion any further, though they speak of stray converts made by Buddha from time to time, but a continuous story has been attempted in the later works like the \*Buddhavamsa\* and the \*Aṭṭhakathās\*.⁴ After the conversion of Sāriputta and Moggallāna, Buddha naturally turned his eyes to his homeland, Kapilavatthu. Here he permitted Rāhula to join the order and asked Sāriputta to give him the ordination. Among other Sākyas that joined the order were Nanda, Ānanda, Devadatta, Anuruddha, Bhaddiya, Bhagu, Kimbila and the barber Upāli.⁵ Most of these figured notably in the subsequent history of the religion and formed in fact the main props of the religion. ### [v1.c19.s1.8](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.religion.dutt-1941.v1.c19.s1.8) ² \*Vinaya\*, I, p. 21-22. ### [v1.c19.s1.9](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.religion.dutt-1941.v1.c19.s1.9) ³ \*Ibid.\*, pp. 23-28. ### [v1.c19.s1.10](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.religion.dutt-1941.v1.c19.s1.10) ⁴ See above, ch. XI. ### [v1.c19.s1.11](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.religion.dutt-1941.v1.c19.s1.11) ⁵ Thomas, \*Life of the Buddha\*, p. 101 f. ### [v1.c19.s1.12](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.religion.dutt-1941.v1.c19.s1.12) It will be observed that Rāhula was ordained by Sāriputta and not by Buddha, and that Sāriputta acted as Rāhula’s \*ācariya\*. It was on this occasion that Buddha empowered his disciples to confer ordination.¹ Buddha himself did not observe any rule for conferring ordination. After the conversion of Sāriputta and Moggallāna, he admitted into the Saṅgha a few others like Aṅgulimāla by the words “ehi bhikkhu.” ### [v1.c19.s1.13](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.religion.dutt-1941.v1.c19.s1.13) ¹ \*Vinaya\*, I, 54, 3. ### [v1.c19.s1.14](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.religion.dutt-1941.v1.c19.s1.14) It was while Buddha was staying at Kapilavatthu that he enlarged the rules of initiation, which were first introduced by him while he was staying at Rājagaha.² ### [v1.c19.s1.15](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.religion.dutt-1941.v1.c19.s1.15) ² \*Ibid.\*, I, 19, 28, 31 f. ### [v1.c19.s1.16](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.religion.dutt-1941.v1.c19.s1.16) The sixty disciples sent out by the Teacher for propagating his new teaching had hitherto no authority to confer ordination on desiring entrants and had to bring them from different parts of the country to the place where Buddha was staying at the time. This was sometimes found impracticable³ and led Buddha to delegate his power of ordination to his disciples who were however directed to observe certain rules. Several restrictions were also imposed to avoid unworthy persons getting into the Saṅgha. The rules and restrictions were generally as follows:— ### [v1.c19.s1.17](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.religion.dutt-1941.v1.c19.s1.17) ³ \*Ibid.\*, I, p. 21-2. ### Rules for Admission ### [v1.c19.s2.1](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.religion.dutt-1941.v1.c19.s2.1) 1. A person seeking ordination was required to shave his hair and moustache,⁴ put on yellow robes, and after covering one shoulder only by the yellow robes, sit on his legs, salute the bhikkhus, and then with folded hands, utter the tisaraṇa formula.⁵ ### [v1.c19.s2.2](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.religion.dutt-1941.v1.c19.s2.2) ⁴ Sanction of the Saṅgha was required for \*bhaṇḍukamma\*.—\*Mv\*, I, 48. 2. ### [v1.c19.s2.3](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.religion.dutt-1941.v1.c19.s2.3) ⁵ \*Vinaya\*, I, p. 21-2. ### [v1.c19.s2.4](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.religion.dutt-1941.v1.c19.s2.4) ii. After some time when the utterance of mere tisaraṇa formula was found inadequate, the system of ñatti-catuttha-kamma was introduced.⁶ The procedure was that an entrant, whose age must not be less than fifteen in case of \*pabbajjā\* and twenty in case of \*upasampadā\*, is to sit on his legs and ask for ordination in a set formulae (\*kammavācā\*)¹ before a chapter of at least ten fully ordained monks.² He must be presented to the chpater by his \*upajjhāya\*, or \*ācariya\*, a competent monk³ selected by him beforehand. He must also satisfy the monks present that he had complied with the preliminary conditions like taking parents' consent, shaving head and so forth. His intention to become a fully ordained monk is announced thrice (\*natti-catuttha\*) by the \*upajjhāya\* or \*ācariya\*. After the announcement, if there is none dissenting, the ordination is conferred. Immediately after the ordination the entrant is apprised of the four \*nissayas\*⁴ upon which he is to depend, viz., living on alms, using robes made out of rags, sleeping under trees, and taking urine and such other filthy things as medicine. These were however later on relaxed.⁵ ### [v1.c19.s2.5](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.religion.dutt-1941.v1.c19.s2.5) ⁶ \*Ibid.\*, I, p. 55-6. ### [v1.c19.s2.6](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.religion.dutt-1941.v1.c19.s2.6) ¹ \*Mahāvagga\*, i, 29. 1; 49. 6; 51. 1. ### [v1.c19.s2.7](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.religion.dutt-1941.v1.c19.s2.7) ² \*Ibid.\*, i, 31. 2. ### [v1.c19.s2.8](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.religion.dutt-1941.v1.c19.s2.8) ³ \*Vinaya\*, I, p. 57: vyattena bhikkhunā paṭibalena saṃgho ñāpetabbo. A bhikkhu is considered competent if he is proficient in \*sila\*, \*samādhi\*, \*paññā\*, \*vimutti\* and \*vimuttiñāṇa-dassana\*. He must be a monk of ten years standing. See \*Vinaya\*, I, pp. 60-63. ### [v1.c19.s2.9](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.religion.dutt-1941.v1.c19.s2.9) ⁴ Bhagvat, \*Early Buddhist Jurisprudence\*, pp. 68-71. ### [v1.c19.s2.10](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.religion.dutt-1941.v1.c19.s2.10) ⁵ See \*Infra\*, pp. 285 ff. ### [v1.c19.s2.11](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.religion.dutt-1941.v1.c19.s2.11) After \*pabbajjā\* ceremony a \*sāmaṇera\* is asked to observe only the ten precepts⁶ and it was after \*upasampadā\* that a monk is asked to observe the four \*pārājikās\* and other rules of the \*Pātimokkha\*.⁷ ### [v1.c19.s2.12](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.religion.dutt-1941.v1.c19.s2.12) ⁶ \*Mahāvagga\*, i, 56. ### [v1.c19.s2.13](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.religion.dutt-1941.v1.c19.s2.13) ⁷ \*Ibid.\*, i, 78. ### Bars to Admission ### [v1.c19.s3.1](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.religion.dutt-1941.v1.c19.s3.1) Persons belonging to non-Buddhist religious orders could only be admitted into the Saṅgha after they had gone through a probationary period (\*parivāsa\*) of four months and behaved themselves properly during the period.¹ Exceptions however were made, in the case of the Jaṭilas and the Sākyas, the former being believers in the effects of past deeds (\*kammavādino kiriyavādino\*) and the latter being kinsmen of the Teacher.² ### [v1.c19.s3.2](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.religion.dutt-1941.v1.c19.s3.2) ¹ \*Mahāvagga\*, i, 38. 1. ### [v1.c19.s3.3](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.religion.dutt-1941.v1.c19.s3.3) ² \*Ibid.\*, i, 38. 11. ### [v1.c19.s3.4](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.religion.dutt-1941.v1.c19.s3.4) Persons suffering from any of the five diseases, viz., leprosy (\*kuṭṭhaṃ\*), boils (\*gaṇḍo\*), dry leprosy (\*kilāso\*), consumption (\*soso\*), and fits (\*apamāro\*) were debarred from admission into the Saṅgha. Other persons who were excluded from admission into the Saṅgha were (a) \*rājabhaṭo\* (men in royal service), \*dhajabaddho coro\* (declared thieves), \*kārābhedako coro\* (jail-breaker), \*likhitako coro\*, (proclaimed robber), \*kasāhaṭo kaṭadaṇḍakammo\* (scourged offender), \*lakkhaṇāhaṭo\* (branded thief), \*iṇāyiko\* (debtor), \*dāso\* (slave), a matricide, a patricide, an arhantacide, one who has violated a nun, one who has caused a schism, one who has shed Buddha’s blood, a eunuch, a hermophrodite, an animal in human form, one whose hand or feet or both have been severed and one who has furtively joined the Saṅgha.³ ### [v1.c19.s3.5](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.religion.dutt-1941.v1.c19.s3.5) ³ \*Ibid.\*, i, 61. 1 to i, 71. 1. ### Nissayas ### [v1.c19.s4.1](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.religion.dutt-1941.v1.c19.s4.1) There were two ceremonies of ordination, the first made the desiring entrant a \*sāmaṇera\* by conferring \*pabbajjā\*, which literally means ‘going out from home to homeless life’ and the second known as \*upasampadā\* made the \*sāmaṇera\* a regular member of the order—a \*bhikkhu\*. A newly ordained \*bhikkhu\* was required to take \*nissaya\*, that is, he had to be dependent on a teacher, for training. The teacher should be a competent monk, whose duty was to make his ward observe and practise the Vinaya rules. Before the ceremony of ordination (\*upasampadā\*) could be performed, the monk must have training for at least ten years and at the same time must prove himself fit and proper for membership of the Sangha.¹ ### [v1.c19.s4.2](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.religion.dutt-1941.v1.c19.s4.2) ¹ Mv., i, 32. 1. In i, 53. 4 ff. the period is reduced to 5 years. ### [v1.c19.s4.3](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.religion.dutt-1941.v1.c19.s4.3) The pabbajjā ceremony was not a formal affair. The utterance of tisaraṇa formula was all that was necessary. The Samaṇa, however, at the time of recruitment had to choose formally his upajjhāya,² as also an ācariya,³ both of whom must be learned, discreet and of ten years standing. ### [v1.c19.s4.4](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.religion.dutt-1941.v1.c19.s4.4) ² Mv., i, 25. 7; i, 69. 1. ### [v1.c19.s4.5](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.religion.dutt-1941.v1.c19.s4.5) ³ Ibid., i, 32. 1. ### [v1.c19.s4.6](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.religion.dutt-1941.v1.c19.s4.6) A Samaṇa's first duty was to provide himself with an alms-bowl and robes,⁴ observe the ten precepts, and render all possible services to his teacher. As a general rule he must be respectful to all monks,⁵ and should never speak ill of Buddha, Dhamma and Sangha nor adhere to any false belief.⁶ He was taught not only the moral laws, conduct and demeanour, but was also initiated into the mysteries of Buddhist philosophy. There are elaborate rules⁷ regulating the mutual duties and obligations of a teacher (upajjhāya) and his disciple (saddhivihārika) as also the cessation of their relation. The relation of a teacher and a disciple should be that of a father and son and it is by mutual reverence, confidence and communion that one can prosper in the dhamma and vinaya.⁸ It is not clear what was the function of the \*Ācariya\*.¹ It may be that he gave the \*nissayas\*, prescribed the \*kammaṭṭhānas\* for meditation to his disciple (\*antevāsika\*), in short, trained him up in the esoteric practices, while the \*upajjhāya\* taught the three \*piṭakas\* and imparted the general instructions, in other words, the exoteric aspects of Buddhism. In the absence of the \*upajjhāya\*, the \*ācariya\* had also to perform the functions of an \*upajjhāya\*, and \*vice versa\*. In the \*Mahāvagga\* and \*Cullavagga\*, (viii. 13-14) the functions of an \*ācariya\* and \*upajjhāya\* are given in identical terms, and it is enjoined that in the absence of one, the other had to perform the functions of both.² ### [v1.c19.s4.7](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.religion.dutt-1941.v1.c19.s4.7) ⁴ Mv., i, 69. 1; 32. 1. ### [v1.c19.s4.8](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.religion.dutt-1941.v1.c19.s4.8) ⁵ Ibid., i. 70. 1 & 5. ### [v1.c19.s4.9](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.religion.dutt-1941.v1.c19.s4.9) ⁶ Ibid., i, 60. 1. ### [v1.c19.s4.10](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.religion.dutt-1941.v1.c19.s4.10) ⁷ For details see Mv., i, 25-27; 32-35, Cv., viii, 11-14. ### [v1.c19.s4.11](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.religion.dutt-1941.v1.c19.s4.11) ⁸ Mv., i, 25. 7; i, 32. 1: evam te aññamaññaṃ sagāravā sappatissā sabhāgavuttino viharantā imasmim dhammavinaye vuḍḍhim, viruḷhiṃ vepullam āpajjissanti. Even if the upajjhāya deserves parivāsa, mūlāya paṭikassanā or any other disciplinary measure, it was the duty of the saddhivihārika to move the Sangha for correcting his teacher (Mv., i, 25. 21). ### [v1.c19.s4.12](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.religion.dutt-1941.v1.c19.s4.12) ² \*Mv.\*, i, 30. 4. ### Residence and Articles of furniture ### [v1.c19.s5.1](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.religion.dutt-1941.v1.c19.s5.1) It has been mentioned above that for the residence of monks \*rukkhamūlasenāsanam\* (residence under trees) was the original rule, while a monastery (\*vihāra\*), a pinnacled house (\*aḍḍhayoga\*), a big building (\*pāsāda\*), an attic (\*hammiya\*) and a cave (\*guhā\*) were later on allowed as \*atirekalābha\*.¹ It was at the instance of Bimbisāra that Buddha accepted the Veluvana-vihāra, and in consequence of which he sanctioned \*ārāmas\* for the dwelling of monks.³ ### [v1.c19.s5.2](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.religion.dutt-1941.v1.c19.s5.2) ¹ See \*SBE.\*, XIII, p. 178-9 fn. I am indebted to my colleague Mr. G. D. De for a few suggestions here. ### [v1.c19.s5.3](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.religion.dutt-1941.v1.c19.s5.3) ³ \*Mv.\*, i, 22. 18. ### [v1.c19.s5.4](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.religion.dutt-1941.v1.c19.s5.4) The monks were still then dwelling at foots of trees, on hills, in grottoes and caves, in cemeteries, forests, open places, or on straw-heaps.⁴ The \*seṭṭhis\* of Rājagaha were the first to come forward to provide \*vihāra\*, \*aḍḍhayoga\*, \*pāsāda\*, \*hammiya\* and \*guhā\* for the monks.⁵ They built sixty \*vihāras\*, and dedicated the same to the use of members of the order of the four corners (\*saṭṭhiṃ vihāre āgatānāgatassa cātuddissassa saṃghassa paṭiṭṭhāpehīti\*). These had plastered walls, white-washed or coloured, and were provided with doors and windows, verandahs, boundary walls, etc.¹ The vihāras so far constructed were provided with the bare requirements of monks as shown above. It was Anāthapiṇḍika who built a monastery at Sāvatthi with all its component parts, \*viz.\*, dwelling rooms, cells, gate-chambers, service-halls, halls with fire-places, store-houses, closets, cloisters, rooms for walking exercises, wells, sheds for the well, bathing places, bath-rooms, tanks, pavilions (\*vihāra\*, \*pariveṇa\*, \*koṭṭhaka\*, \*upaṭṭhānasālā\*, \*aggisālā\*, \*kappiyakuṭi\*, \*vaccakuṭi\*, \*caṅkama\*, \*caṅkamasālā\*, \*udapāna\*, \*udapānasālā\*, \*jantāghara\*, \*jantāgharasālā\*, \*pokkharaṇī\*, \*maṇḍapa\*).² ### [v1.c19.s5.5](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.religion.dutt-1941.v1.c19.s5.5) ⁴ \*Cv.\*, vi, 1. 1. ### [v1.c19.s5.6](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.religion.dutt-1941.v1.c19.s5.6) ⁵ \*Mv.\*, i. 2. ### [v1.c19.s5.7](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.religion.dutt-1941.v1.c19.s5.7) ¹ For details, see \*Cv.\*, vi, 2 & 3. ### [v1.c19.s5.8](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.religion.dutt-1941.v1.c19.s5.8) ² \*Cullavagga\*, vi, 4. 10; viii, 7. 4; \*Mahāvagga\*, iii, 5. 6. For the various kinds of rooms in a house for the use of a householder, see \*Mv.\*, iii, 5. 10; \*SBE.\*, vol. XX, p. 189; Dutt, \*Early Buddhist Monachism\*, pp. 122-3, 183. ### [v1.c19.s5.9](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.religion.dutt-1941.v1.c19.s5.9) The institution of \*Caṅkamasālā\*³ and \*Jantāghara\*⁴ was permitted at the instance of Jīvaka and elaborate directions are given for the construction of these. The directions for \*jantāghara\* were given mostly in connection with the provision of fire in the rooms and the methods of taking baths. For privies and urinating places there are similar directions, and in addition there are also some instructions regarding the use of bath-rooms and privies (\*jantāghara-vattaṃ\* and \*vaccakuṭivattaṃ\*).⁵ The \*Kappiyakuṭi\* also requires some justification because the monks were required to take the vow of poverty and were prohibited to store any food. This anomalous position has been met by Buddha by recommending \*kappiyabhūmi\* outside the boundary of the monastery.¹ ### [v1.c19.s5.10](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.religion.dutt-1941.v1.c19.s5.10) ³ \*Cullavagga\*, v. 14. ### [v1.c19.s5.11](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.religion.dutt-1941.v1.c19.s5.11) ⁴ \*Ibid.\*, v. 14. 3; viii, 8. ### [v1.c19.s5.12](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.religion.dutt-1941.v1.c19.s5.12) ⁵ \*Ibid.\*, v, 35; viii, 8, 10. ### [v1.c19.s5.13](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.religion.dutt-1941.v1.c19.s5.13) ¹ \*Mahāvagga\*, vi, 33; cf. Dutt, \*op. cit.\*, p. 184. See Infra, p. 289. ### [v1.c19.s5.14](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.religion.dutt-1941.v1.c19.s5.14) In consonance with the leniency gradually shown by Buddha in the matter of residence suitable for the monks, great latitude was given also in regard to seats, beds, and other articles of furniture.² The monks were allowed to have as their seats or beds benches built against the walls, bedsteads with short removable legs, arm-chairs, sofas, cushioned chairs, carpets, pillows, bolsters stuffed with wool, cotton, grass etc. They were required to keep them clean, and there are also directions for cleaning the \*vihāra\* and articles of furniture.³ ### [v1.c19.s5.15](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.religion.dutt-1941.v1.c19.s5.15) ² In \*Mv.\*, v, 10. 5 the following \*Uccāsayanamahāsayanāni\* were prohibited: \*āsandi pallaṅko goṇako cittakā paṭikā paṭalikā tūlikā vikatikā\* and so forth. ### [v1.c19.s5.16](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.religion.dutt-1941.v1.c19.s5.16) ³ \*Cullavagga\*, vii, 7. ### [v1.c19.s5.17](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.religion.dutt-1941.v1.c19.s5.17) The monks were generally not allowed to use animal skins for seats or beds⁴ but exception was made in the case of monks living in Avantidakkhiṇāpatha where the skins of \*eḷaka\*, \*aja\* and \*miga\* could be used for \*attharaṇas\*.⁵ ### [v1.c19.s5.18](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.religion.dutt-1941.v1.c19.s5.18) ⁴ \*Mahāvagga\*, v, 7. 10 ### [v1.c19.s5.19](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.religion.dutt-1941.v1.c19.s5.19) ⁵ \*Ibid.\*, v, 13. 3. ### [v1.c19.s5.20](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.religion.dutt-1941.v1.c19.s5.20) Sometimes difficulties were experienced in accommodating monks in monasteries, some of which were very small. Rules had to be framed for ascertaining the claim of priority, and in course, of time, office-bearers like \*Senāsanapaññāpaka\*⁶ had to be appointed to arrange for accommodating the incoming bhikkhus properly. ### [v1.c19.s5.21](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.religion.dutt-1941.v1.c19.s5.21) ⁶ Other office-bearers relating to \*Senāsana\* were \*Navakammika\* and \*Senāsanagāhāpaka\* (\*Cv.\*, vi, 11. 2). See Infra., p. 322. ### Dress of Monks ### [v1.c19.s6.1](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.religion.dutt-1941.v1.c19.s6.1) For the dress of monks, \*paṃsukūlacīvara\* was the rule while linen, cotton, silk, woollen garments, coarse cloth, hempen (\*khomaṃ kappāsikaṃ koseyyaṃ kambalaṃ sāṇaṃ bhaṅgaṃ\*)¹ were extra concessions (\*atirekalābha\*). It was at the instance of Jīvaka Komārabhacca that Buddha permitted his followers to accept the robes (\*cīvaras\*) offered by laymen. These could be made of six kinds of materials mentioned above.² A monk was allowed only three garments (\*cīvaras\*), viz., saṃghāṭi, uttarāsaṅgha and antarāvāsaka.³ The cīvaras had to be made out of cut pieces of cloth so that when sewn together should look like cultivated fields.⁴ There are several rules relating to the dyeing of cīvaras, drying dyed cloths, division and distribution of the cīvaras among the recipients, and so forth. In division and distribution many difficulties cropped up, leading to the creation of office-bearers like \*cīvarabhājaka\* (distributor of robes), \*bhaṇḍāgāra\* (store-keeper), \*cīvaranidāhaka\* (keeper of robes), and \*cīvarapaṭiggāhaka\*, (receiver of robes). Each of these office-bearers were formally appointed by the Saṅgha by unanimous consent.⁵ The Pātimokkha-sutta takes notice of several irregularities in the distribution and use of cīvaras and so prescribes punishments for the irregularities. Besides cīvaras, the bhikkhus were allowed to accept mantles (\*pāvara\*), blankets (\*kambala\*), towels (\*mukhapuñchaka colaka\*), bags (\*parikkhāracolaka\*), bathing clothes (\*udakasāṭika\*), and bandages for itches, wounds, etc. (\*kaṇḍupaṭicchādi\*)⁶ It cannot be definitely stated when the use of shoes by monks came into vogue. According to the tradition, permission was granted by Buddha for the use of shoes when Sāgata was the servitor of Buddha. Once the privilege was given, there were abuses, and to counteract these several restrictions had to be imposed regarding colour, shape and materials of the shoes¹ and the use of those in the cloisters (\*caṅkamana\*) or in the presence of the Upajjhāya, and so forth. ### [v1.c19.s6.2](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.religion.dutt-1941.v1.c19.s6.2) ¹ \*Mv.\*, i, 30. 4; \*SBE.\*, XIII, p. 173. ### [v1.c19.s6.3](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.religion.dutt-1941.v1.c19.s6.3) ² \*Mv.\*, viii, 3. 1. ### [v1.c19.s6.4](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.religion.dutt-1941.v1.c19.s6.4) ³ \*Mv.\*, viii, 13. 5; \*SBE.\*, XVII, p. 212; a double waist cloth, a single upper robe, and a single undergarment. ### [v1.c19.s6.5](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.religion.dutt-1941.v1.c19.s6.5) ⁴ \*Mv.\*, viii, 12. 2 ### [v1.c19.s6.6](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.religion.dutt-1941.v1.c19.s6.6) ⁵ \*Mv.\*, viii, 5-9. ### [v1.c19.s6.7](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.religion.dutt-1941.v1.c19.s6.7) ⁶ \*Mv\*, viii, 17-20. ### [v1.c19.s6.8](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.religion.dutt-1941.v1.c19.s6.8) ¹ \*Mv.\*, v, 1. 30 ff. ### Pūtimuttabhesajjam ### [v1.c19.s7.1](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.religion.dutt-1941.v1.c19.s7.1) Like the previous two nissayas, \*pūtimuttabhesajjam\* (urine and such other medicines) was the original rule, but later on sappi (butter), navanīta (cream), tela (oil), madhu (honey), phāṇita (molasses) were allowed to be taken but only in the forenoon. Later on, however, the time was not only extended, but permission was also given for storing the same upto seven days² in supersession of the rule that no food should be stored. In course of time these were found inadequate to keep the bhikkhus free from ailments, so permission was given for using as medicines animal fats, medicinal roots, herbs, leaves, fruits, gums, salts, and such other drugs prescribed in the \*Āyurveda-śāstra\*, including even raw meat and blood, besides gruels and broths. Use of hot baths, purgatives, ointments, and dressing of wounds were recommended in cases of necessity. Receptacles, instruments, and other articles required for preparing medicines or applying ointments, letting of blood by lancets, use of surgical appliances and requisities, were sanctioned as a matter of course. Surgical operation was prohibited only in cases of wounds which were within two inches of the anus. The monks, in fact, were allowed to take almost all medicinal and surgical aids available at the time, the only condition being that they in the name of medicines must not drift to excesses or enjoy the comforts of a householder. ### [v1.c19.s7.2](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.religion.dutt-1941.v1.c19.s7.2) ² \*Mv.\*, vi, 1. 5; 15. 10. ### Piṇḍiyālopabhojanam ### [v1.c19.s8.1](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.religion.dutt-1941.v1.c19.s8.1) Originally the monks were enjoined to live only on alms, but in course of time the rule was relaxed and they were allowed to accept invitations when extended to a Sangha as a body, or to a group of individuals, or to an individual. They could also accept food distributed by tickets (\*salākā\*), fortnightly meals, meals on the Uposatha days or meals offered on every first day (\*pratipad\*) of a fortnight.¹ ### [v1.c19.s8.2](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.religion.dutt-1941.v1.c19.s8.2) ¹ \*Sanghabhatta\*, \*Uddesabhatta\*, \*Nimantana\*, \*Salākābhatta\*, \*Pakkhika\*, \*Uposathika\*, and \*Patipadika\*. See Infra., p. 322. ### [v1.c19.s8.3](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.religion.dutt-1941.v1.c19.s8.3) The restrictions regarding food were further relaxed in the section on medicaments. Not only sick but also healthy monks were allowed to take sugar-water,² or other sweet drinks,³ fruits,⁴ meat and fish under certain conditions.⁵ ### [v1.c19.s8.4](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.religion.dutt-1941.v1.c19.s8.4) ² \*Mv.\*, vi, 27. 1. ### [v1.c19.s8.5](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.religion.dutt-1941.v1.c19.s8.5) ³ \*Mv.\*, vi, 35. 6. ### [v1.c19.s8.6](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.religion.dutt-1941.v1.c19.s8.6) ⁴ \*Mv.\*, vi, 38. 1. ### [v1.c19.s8.7](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.religion.dutt-1941.v1.c19.s8.7) ⁵ \*Mv.\*, vi, 31. 14. Cf. \*Infra.\*, p. 312. ### [v1.c19.s8.8](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.religion.dutt-1941.v1.c19.s8.8) By the sanction of \*Kappiya-bhūmi\* for the storage of food, further latitude was given to the monks in the matter of obtaining their food, even, if necessary, by cooking. The site of the Kappiyabhūmi had to be selected beyond the boundary limits of a monastery, with the exception that the site if not so found, a cow-shed or a layman's building within the boundaries of a monastery might be used as a Kappiyabhūmi. A bhikkhu was entrusted with the management of the Kappiyabhūmi. He was called Kappiyakāraka. It is said that bhikkhus undertaking a journey were permitted even to receive gold through the Kappiyakāraka and purchase the necessaries of life.⁶ Lastly the bhikkhus were given full discretion in matters of food and medicaments regarding which there was no express direction in the Vinaya.⁷ ### [v1.c19.s8.9](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.religion.dutt-1941.v1.c19.s8.9) ⁶ \*Mv.\*, vi, 34. 21. ### [v1.c19.s8.10](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.religion.dutt-1941.v1.c19.s8.10) ⁷ \*Mv.\*, vi, 40. ### Uposatha and Pātimokkha Assemblies ### [v1.c19.s9.1](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.religion.dutt-1941.v1.c19.s9.1) Following the practice of the non-Buddhist sects, Buddha introduced (tradition says at the instance of King Bimbisāra) the fortnightly sitting of monks either on the 14th or 15th (and/or 8th) day, to hold discussions about the Dhamma and Vinaya and to recite the rules of the \*Pātimokkha\*.¹ Before the recitation, the preliminaries to be attended to, were: Sweeping of the Uposatha hall, provision of seats, lamps and drinking water, formal announcement of the day, declaration of \*Pārisuddhi\* of all the members, selection of monks to put and answer questions relating to \*dhamma\* and \*vinaya\*, counting of the members to ascertain the completeness of the Sangha.² ### [v1.c19.s9.2](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.religion.dutt-1941.v1.c19.s9.2) ¹ Cf. \*IHQ\*., XII (1936), pp. 383-390: Uposatha by J. Przyluski; \*Journal of Buddhist India\* (1927), pp. 304 ff.: Uposatha by G. D. De. ### [v1.c19.s9.3](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.religion.dutt-1941.v1.c19.s9.3) ² Sangha would not be complete unless all the bhikkhus attended the meeting personally or by proxy. ### [v1.c19.s9.4](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.religion.dutt-1941.v1.c19.s9.4) As completeness implied a jurisdiction of the Sangha, rules were framed for defining the limits (\*sīmā\*) of a Sangha, i.e., of a \*Pātimokkha\* assembly. Formal selection was made of the spot where the monks were to meet for the purpose of a \*Pātimokkha\* assembly. Completeness of an assembly implied also the presence of not only all the existing members of an \*āvāsa\* but also of those who might belong to another \*āvāsa\* but happened to be present on the Uposatha day within the \*sīmā\* of that \*āvāsa\*. There were occasions when the members of an \*āvāsa\* held an assembly without being assured of the presence of members belonging to another \*āvāsa\*, but dwelling within the \*āvāsa\* on the Uposatha day. Rules were prescribed for bonafide mistakes but, as a rule, if the members of another \*āvāsa\* were larger in number, the assembly had to be held anew.³ When however an assembly was held deliberately to avoid or exclude the incoming members of another \*āvāsa\*, the members joining the assembly became guilty of either \*dukkaṭa\* or \*thullaccaya\* according to the nature of the intention. The bhikkhus, however, were directed not to leave their residence on the Uposatha day except on an urgent business of the Sangha.¹ ### [v1.c19.s9.5](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.religion.dutt-1941.v1.c19.s9.5) ³ \*Mv\*., ii, 28, 4. ### [v1.c19.s9.6](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.religion.dutt-1941.v1.c19.s9.6) ¹ \*Mv.\*, ii, 35. ### [v1.c19.s9.7](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.religion.dutt-1941.v1.c19.s9.7) The bhikkhus were required to attend the assembly fully dressed (\*ticīvarena avippavāsa\*) with certain exceptions, recite the rules of the Pātimokkha in extenso, abridging it only in cases of danger. In cases of necessity bhikkhus from other \*āvāsas\* were invited for reciting the Pātimokkha. ### [v1.c19.s9.8](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.religion.dutt-1941.v1.c19.s9.8) There were special procedures for the declaration of \*Pārisuddhi\* by a sick monk, for obtaining his consent to the ecclesiastical acts passed in the assembly, and for dealing with a monk who has become insane. The minimum number of members who could hold a Pātimokkha assembly was four; for declaration of Pārisuddhi only, the minimum number of bhikkhus required was two,² and in both the cases actual attendance of the members was indispensable. If there were only one bhikkhu in an \*āvāsa\*, he had to take to \*adhiṭṭhāna\*.³ The \*pārisuddhi\* of an assembly was obtained by making all the members declare individually that they had not committed any breach of the Pātimokkha rules during the preceding fortnight, or by making those who had committed any breach confess their offences. There were exceptional occasions when collective declaration of \*pārisuddhi\* was accepted.⁴ ### [v1.c19.s9.9](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.religion.dutt-1941.v1.c19.s9.9) ² There is a special procedure in case of one bhikkhu. See \*Mv.\*, ii, 26. 9. ### [v1.c19.s9.10](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.religion.dutt-1941.v1.c19.s9.10) ³ \*Adhiṭṭhāna\*=resolution, self-determination. ### [v1.c19.s9.11](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.religion.dutt-1941.v1.c19.s9.11) ⁴ \*Mv.\*, ii, 27. 8. ### [v1.c19.s9.12](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.religion.dutt-1941.v1.c19.s9.12) The recitation of the Pātimokkha could be made only in an assembly in which the members had declared their \*pārisuddhi\* and in which there were no bhikkhunīs, sāmaṇeras, sāmaṇerīs, or any bhikkhu undergoing punishment, or persons not admissible to the \*Sangha\*.¹ In the \*Cullavagga\*² it is laid down that the recitation of the Pātimokkha should be interdicted (\*Pātimokkham thapetabbam\*) if there were any impure bhikkhu in the assembly. The interdiction was required in cases where bhikkhus were too obstinate to acknowledge their guilt. ### [v1.c19.s9.13](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.religion.dutt-1941.v1.c19.s9.13) ¹ \*Mv.\*, ii, 36. ### [v1.c19.s9.14](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.religion.dutt-1941.v1.c19.s9.14) ² \*Cv.\*, ix. ### Vassāvāsa ### [v1.c19.s10.1](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.religion.dutt-1941.v1.c19.s10.1) The observance of \*vassāvāsa\* came into vogue among the Buddhist monks at an early date. To avoid the inconvenience of travelling in the rains and the chance of injuring sprouts and insects, it was enjoined that the bhikkhus should stay at one place (\*āvāsa\*) during three months of the rains, commencing from the day next to the fullmoon of \*Āṣādha\* (June-July) or \*Śrāvaṇa\* (July-August). In cases of urgent calls only for the benefit of the \*Sangha\* or of the lay-devotees or sick persons, or for some particular business of the \*Sangha\*, the bhikkhus were allowed to leave the \*āvāsa\* for seven days only.³ There was however no bar to bhikkhus leaving the \*āvāsa\*⁴ if there be danger to life through beasts of prey, snakes, robbers, or if the residence be destroyed by fire or water, or if there be great scarcity of food or medicine, or lack of lay-devotees, or any chance of \*sīlavipatti\* or \*saṅghabheda\*. ### [v1.c19.s10.2](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.religion.dutt-1941.v1.c19.s10.2) ³ For \*Sattāhakaraṇīya\*, see \*Mv.\*, iii, 5 ff. ### [v1.c19.s10.3](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.religion.dutt-1941.v1.c19.s10.3) ⁴ For \*anāpatti vassacchedassa\*, see \*Mv.\*, iii, 9 ff. ### [v1.c19.s10.4](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.religion.dutt-1941.v1.c19.s10.4) The bhikkhus could take up \*vassāvāsa\* with a moving caravan, ship or cattle-pen but not in the hollow of a tree, in the open air or under a sun-shade.⁵ ### [v1.c19.s10.5](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.religion.dutt-1941.v1.c19.s10.5) ⁵ \*Mv.\*, iii, 12. ### [v1.c19.s10.6](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.religion.dutt-1941.v1.c19.s10.6) In the selection of the residence during \*vassa\* the monks were recommended to stay in those places where the number of laydevotees was large but a monk who had given previously his word to a lay-devotee must keep it.¹ ### [v1.c19.s10.7](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.religion.dutt-1941.v1.c19.s10.7) ¹ Mv., iii, 13. ### Pavāraṇā ### [v1.c19.s11.1](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.religion.dutt-1941.v1.c19.s11.1) The ceremony of Pavāraṇā was performed at the end of the vassāvāsa. The object of the ceremony was to confess all sins of omission and commission (seen, heard or apprehended)² that might have been committed during the vassāvāsa. It was almost the same as the declaration of pārisuddhi in the Pātimokkha assemblies dealt with before. Elaborate rules were laid down regarding the procedure of the pavāraṇā ceremony, most of them being identical with those of pārisuddhi. Like the pārisuddhi-thapanam (interdiction of pārisuddhi declaration), there was also the system of pavāraṇā-thapanam (interdiction of pavāraṇā ceremony).³ ### [v1.c19.s11.2](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.religion.dutt-1941.v1.c19.s11.2) ² Diṭṭhena vā sutena vā parisaṅkāya. vā. ### [v1.c19.s11.3](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.religion.dutt-1941.v1.c19.s11.3) ³ Mv., iv, 16; cf. Cv., ix. See above, p. 291-2. ### Kaṭhina ### [v1.c19.s12.1](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.religion.dutt-1941.v1.c19.s12.1) Another ceremony on the termination of vassāvāsa was the making of robes out of the gifts of cloth made by the laity to the bhikkhu-saṅgha within a very short time. The Saṅgha might decide upon a Kaṭhina ceremony if there were any need for it. In that case, it must announce its intention formally before the Saṅgha and obtain the unanimous consent of the members, and then select by another formal announcement the bhikkhu to be entrusted with the making of the robes. The bhikkhu so entrusted was allowed a few privileges regarding his food, dress, and rules of daily life.⁴ The ceremony would not be complete unless and until the cloths had been cut to measurement, sewn, braided or doubled where necessary, washed and dyed, distributed among the monks, and the words of thanksgiving uttered. In certain circumstances, the ceremony might be either postponed or abandoned. The bhikkhus taking part in the robe-making were allowed the use of knives with handles, needles, needle-cases, wooden frames and other appliances required in tailoring. If necessary, they could set up temporary open halls or sheds with high basement and balustrade and could have them plastered and coloured.¹ ### [v1.c19.s12.2](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.religion.dutt-1941.v1.c19.s12.2) ⁴ Mv., vii, 1. 3. ### [v1.c19.s12.3](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.religion.dutt-1941.v1.c19.s12.3) ¹ Cv. v, 11. ### [v1.c19.s12.4](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.religion.dutt-1941.v1.c19.s12.4) The general rule regarding the distribution of robes was that a residing bhikkhu in an āvāsa was entitled to a share in the robes, and if among the residing bhikkhus any one went away beyond the limits of the āvāsa without the intention of coming back, he was excluded from a share in the division. One, who had the intention of coming back but failed to do so before the last day of Kaṭhina ceremony, lost his privilege of sharing the robes.² ### [v1.c19.s12.5](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.religion.dutt-1941.v1.c19.s12.5) ² Mv, viii, 1 ff. ### Formation of the order of nuns ### [v1.c19.s13.1](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.religion.dutt-1941.v1.c19.s13.1) Buddha was strongly opposed to the creation of the order of nuns as he rightly apprehended that the weaker male members of the Saṅgha might have greater chances of moral lapses. ### [v1.c19.s13.2](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.religion.dutt-1941.v1.c19.s13.2) He, however, as a Teacher, whose watchword was reason, could not withstand the well-reasoned arguments of Ānanda as to how could sex stand in the way of attaining perfection and why should the female sex be deprived of the benefits of the religion.³ Buddha was silenced by Ānanda’s arguments and consented to the formation of the order of nuns though he recognised that such a step was going to shorten the duration of his religion, based as it was on the maintenance of pure morals. In view of the position of women prevailing at that time, several restrictions were imposed on the movements of the nuns, some of which were so humiliating that they brought forth protest from Mahāpajāpati Gotamī though without any effect. ### [v1.c19.s13.3](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.religion.dutt-1941.v1.c19.s13.3) ³ Cv., x, 1. 3; Ānanda said to Bhagavā: bhabbo nu kho mātu-gāmo tathāgatappavedite dhammavinaye agārasmā anagāriyaṃ pabbajitvā sotāpattiphalaṃ vā sakadāgāmiphalaṃ vā anāgāmiphalaṃ vā arahattaṃ vā sacchikātun ti. Bhagavā answered in the positive. ### [v1.c19.s13.4](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.religion.dutt-1941.v1.c19.s13.4) The restrictions were as follows:— ### [v1.c19.s13.5](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.religion.dutt-1941.v1.c19.s13.5) (i) a nun, however old, must show respect to a bhikkhu, but never a monk to a nun,¹ ### [v1.c19.s13.6](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.religion.dutt-1941.v1.c19.s13.6) ¹ Mahāpajāpati protested against this condition. See Cv., x. 3. ### [v1.c19.s13.7](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.religion.dutt-1941.v1.c19.s13.7) (ii) a nun must not pass vassā in a monastery where there was no bhikkhu, ### [v1.c19.s13.8](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.religion.dutt-1941.v1.c19.s13.8) (iii) every fortnight a nun was required to ascertain from a bhikkhu the date of uposatha and the day fixed for bhikkhu’s exhortation (ovāda) to the nuns, ### [v1.c19.s13.9](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.religion.dutt-1941.v1.c19.s13.9) (iv) a nun must perform pavāraṇā first in the bhikkhu-saṅgha and again in the bhikkhunī-saṅgha, ### [v1.c19.s13.10](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.religion.dutt-1941.v1.c19.s13.10) (v) a mānatta discipline must be taken by a nun first from the bhikkhu-saṅgha and then from the bhikkhunī-saṅgha, ### [v1.c19.s13.11](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.religion.dutt-1941.v1.c19.s13.11) (vi) a nun after training in the six pācittiya rules (63-68) of Bhikkhunī-pātimokkha, should seek upasampadā from both the Saṅghas one after another, ### [v1.c19.s13.12](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.religion.dutt-1941.v1.c19.s13.12) (vii) a nun must not revile a monk, ### [v1.c19.s13.13](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.religion.dutt-1941.v1.c19.s13.13) (viii) a nun must not admonish a monk or fix for the monks any date for uposatha or pavāraṇā. ### [v1.c19.s13.14](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.religion.dutt-1941.v1.c19.s13.14) They were to observe all the sikkhāpadas prescribed for the monks, and were given the general directions that they should not indulge in such acts as would give rise to desire (\*rāga\*), attachment (\*saññoga\*), acquisition (\*ācaya\*), dissatisfaction (\*asan-tuṭṭhi\*), and so forth. ### [v1.c19.s13.15](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.religion.dutt-1941.v1.c19.s13.15) The mode of life prescribed for them was substantially the same as that of the monks. The Pātimokkha rules, however, differed partially from those of the monks.¹ Most of the twenty-four restrictions that had to be observed in conferring ordination were common to the monks and nuns with a few meant specially for the nuns.² The formulae (\*kammavācā\*) for ordination, selection of \*upajjhāya\* and \*ācariya\*, prescription of \*nissayas\* are all identical with those of the monks. In the case of nuns, sanction for ordination had to be taken twice first from the bhikkhu sangha and then from the bhikkhunī sangha. It is interesting to note that in case a woman was unable to present herself before the Saṅgha for ordination on account of dangers on the way, she could send a messenger to the Saṅgha to seek ordination on behalf. Such ordination by proxy was allowed. There are a few special directions for such ordinations by proxy. There are also special provisions for conferring ordination on a woman with child, and rules for her mode of life after delivery. The nuns who had once left the order or joined a heretical teacher were refused readmission (x. 26). ### [v1.c19.s13.16](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.religion.dutt-1941.v1.c19.s13.16) ¹ See \*Infra\*, ch. XVIII. ### [v1.c19.s13.17](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.religion.dutt-1941.v1.c19.s13.17) ² \*Cv.\*, x, 17: animittā, nimittamattā, alohitā, dhuvalohitā, dhu-vacolā, paggharanti, sikharinī, itthipaṇḍikā, vepurisikā, sambhinnā, and ubhatovyañjanā. ### [v1.c19.s13.18](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.religion.dutt-1941.v1.c19.s13.18) As a general rule, the nuns were not allowed to dwell in forests. They could live in a \*Uddosita\* (outhouse), \*Upassaya\* (hermitage), \*Navakamma\* (cottages specially built for them). Regarding their residence, use of beds, seats, and vehicles, they were asked to be more discreet than the monks. They were prohibited from using bathing or beauty powders, fancy girdles. Utmost caution has been taken to keep the monks and nuns apart, several restrictions having been imposed on the giving and taking of food, dress, and articles of use between monks and nuns. ### [v1.c19.s13.19](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.religion.dutt-1941.v1.c19.s13.19) The nuns were required to observe the \*Uposatha\* and \*Pavāraṇā\* ceremonies, confess their omissions and commissions, if any, and receive admonitions (\*ovāda\*). Originally in all these functions, the nuns had to take the assistance of a monk, specially nominated for the purpose by the bhikkhu-saṅgha, but later on this condition was relaxed and the nuns could perform the functions by themselves without the help of a monk. In matters of dispute, however, the service of a bhikkhu was compulsory, but after the infliction of a disciplinary measure, a nun watched the punished nun while undergoing \*parivāsa\* or \*mānatta\*.¹ ### [v1.c19.s13.20](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.religion.dutt-1941.v1.c19.s13.20) ¹ For detailed treatment, see Miss D. Bhagvat, \*Early Buddhist Jurisprudence\*, ch. IX. ## Linked texts (13) - [Mahāvagga](https://indike.org/pramana/in.bauddha.theravada.vp.khandhaka.mahavagga.1.27.1.11) — Pāli - [Cullavagga](https://indike.org/pramana/in.bauddha.theravada.vp.khandhaka.cullavagga.6.1.1) — Pāli - [Upālisutta](https://indike.org/pramana/in.bauddha.theravada.sp.majjhima.56.1.1) — Pāli - [Accāyikasutta](https://indike.org/pramana/in.bauddha.theravada.sp.anguttara.3.92.1.1) — Pāli - [Vajjiputtasutta](https://indike.org/pramana/in.bauddha.theravada.sp.anguttara.3.84.3.1) — Pāli - [Adhikaraṇasamathasutta](https://indike.org/pramana/in.bauddha.theravada.sp.anguttara.7.84.1.1) — Pāli - [Akusalapeyyālavagga](https://indike.org/pramana/in.bauddha.theravada.sp.anguttara.2.230-279.1.1) — Pāli - [Āyāraṃga](https://indike.org/pramana/in.jaina.sveta.anga.1) — Sudharman, Ardhamāgadhī Prakrit - [Taittirīyāraṇyaka](https://indike.org/pramana/in.veda.aranyaka.taittiriya) — Sanskrit - [Vinayapiṭaka](https://indike.org/pramana/in.bauddha.theravada.vp) — Pāli - [Majjhimanikāya](https://indike.org/pramana/in.bauddha.theravada.sp.majjhima) — Pāli - [Aṅguttaranikāya](https://indike.org/pramana/in.bauddha.theravada.sp.anguttara) — Pāli - [Sāmavidhānabrāhmaṇa](https://indike.org/pramana/in.veda.brahmana.samavidhana) — Sanskrit --- Source: [https://indike.org/pramana/ins.religion.dutt-1941.v1.c19](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.religion.dutt-1941.v1.c19) · Pramāṇa