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Early Monastic Buddhism v1.c6: Chapter III: The Religieux of Ancient India

Early Monastic Buddhism v1.c6

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Chapter III: The Religieux of Ancient India

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In the pre-Buddhistic days, people found more leisure to busy themselves with the questions relating to the ultimate problems. The literature produced was all religious, e.g., the Brāhmaṇas, Āraṇyakas, Śrautasūtras, other kinds of Sūtras, Āgamas and so forth. In view also of the existence of kotuhala-sālās and paribbajākārāmas in towns and villages, it may well be inferred that religious discussions formed an important feature of the cultural life of the period, and the life of a recluse was generally encouraged, no exception being made in the case of sons of even well-to-do families.

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The various classes of religious people that we come across in the Pāli texts may broadly be divided thus:

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(i) Brāhmaṇical Teachers:

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These teachers kept up the Vedic tradition and were mainly engaged in reciting the Vedic hymns and performing the sacrifices. They are referred to in Tevijja and other Suttas in these terms: there were the ṛṣis, e.g. Aṭṭhaka, Vāmaka, Vāmadeva, Vessāmitta, Yamataggi, Aṅgirasa, Bhāradvāja, Vāseṭṭha, Kassapa and Bhagu,¹ who are said to be the ancestors of the present-day Brāhmaṇas, and composers of hymns (mantā-nam kattāro). From them have been handed down mantras which are being recited at present (etarahi) by Brāhmaṇas, proficient in the three Vedas. According to the Tevijja sutta, they were not only reciters of Vedic hymns but were also students and teachers of the sacrificial literature. From the accounts of Brāhmaṇic sacrifices found in the Kūṭadanta and other suttas, it becomes apparent how much, at the time of the rise of Buddhism, the ancient system of Brāhmaṇic sacrifices was in vogue. In these elaborate sacrifices, services of learned Brāhmaṇas had to be requisitioned. In a passage of the Kūṭadanta sutta it is stated that Brāhmaṇas of pure origin, well-versed in the Vedas and the subsidiary literature, were only engaged for the performance of sacrifices. So evidently there was a class of Brāhmaṇas who studied mainly the sacrificial literature and earned their livelihood by officiating at sacrifices.

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¹ Of these few names, five are found in the Ṛg-Veda, three being reputed as composers of the Ṛg-Vedic Maṇḍalas, (viz. Vāmadeva of the 4th Maṇḍala, Bhāradvāja of the 6th and Vāseṭṭha of the 7th). The rest are well-known names of the Brāhmaṇa and Śrauta-Sūtra period. Aṭṭhaka is found in the Aitr. Br. (VII. 17) and Śāṅkhāyana Śr. S. (XV.

(ii) Brāhmaṇical Academic Teacher

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In the Tevijja,¹ Kūṭadanta,² Subha³ and other suttas we come across the names of Caṅki, Tārukkha, Pokkharasāti, Jānussoṇī, Toḍeyya, Kūṭadanta and other Brāhmaṇas who are described as teachers enjoying the revenues of villages given to them by the king of the country.⁴ These Brāhmaṇas were quite rich, and

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² Digha, I, pp. 127 f.

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26) as one of the sons of Viśvāmitra; Vāmaka and Bhagu appear as teachers and sages in the Ś. Br. (X. 6.5.9; VII. 2.¹.11) while Yamataggi (Jāmadagni) is well-known as the rival of Vasiṣṭha; and Aṅgira'a as a teacher is mentioned in the Tait. Sam (III 1.7.³. and VII. 1.⁴.1).

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¹ Digha, I, pp. 235 f.

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³ Majjhima, II, p. 202.

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⁴ The terms in which this is expressed are the same in every account, viz., “Kūṭadanto brāhmaṇo Khānumataṃ (Magadhānaṃ brāhmaṇagāmam) ajjhāvasati sattussadaṃ saṭiṇakaṭṭhodakaṃ sadhaññaṃ

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were known as *mahāsāla-brāhmaṇas*. They occasionally celebrated sacrifices by spending large sums. The thought that troubled Kūṭadanta, viz., that he is not fully aware of the *tividha yaññasampadaṃ soḷasa-parikkhāraṃ*, leads us to infer that their knowledge relating to sacrifices was only limited. These Brāhmaṇa teachers had all the four qualities mentioned below¹ beside being *brahmavaṇṇi, brahmavaccasī, kalyāṇavāco, kalyāṇavākkaraṇo*, etc.² They taught mantras to 300 to 500 students (*māṇavakas*) who flocked to them from different countries (*nānādisā nānājanapadā māṇavakā āgacchanti*). They are described as proficient in the three Vedas with *nighaṇḍu* and *keṭubha*, in the traditional lore, in worldly sciences and in the science of physiognomy. They commanded respect of the people who thought that it would be beneath the teacher's dignity to approach Gotama (Buddha) for discussion, and suggested that the latter should come to them. The maxim that guests should be honoured led, however, the Brāhmaṇa teachers, in some instances, to approach Gotama

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¹ *Majjhima*, II, p. 210; *Digha*, I, p. 128: The Purohitas are endowed with the following four qualities:
(i) Pure in descent up to the 7th generation both from father's and mother's side.
(ii) engaged in study, remembering mantras, proficient in the three Vedas, Nighaṇḍu, Keṭubha, Itihāsa, Lokāyata, Mahāpurisa-lakkhanas, etc.
(iii) observant of moral precepts; and
(iv) wise, intelligent and so forth.

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² *Digha*, I, p. 114; these attributes were also applied to Buddha; see *Digha*, I, 132.

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*rājabhoggaṃ raññā Māgadhena Seṇiyena Bimbisārena dinnaṃ rājadeyyaṃ brahmadeyyaṃ*. The custom of giving away lands to Brāhmaṇas is ancient in India and it still prevails.

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Buddha. The Pāli accounts make it clear that these Brāhmaṇas were expected to enter into discussions with distinguished teachers who paid visits to their countries, and convince the people of their great erudition. The description of the discussions is, however, scanty and one-sided, but it leaves no room for doubt in our mind that these Brāhmaṇas were distinguished scholars and teachers, and were maintained by the king as such; they were not required to officiate at sacrifices as the previously-mentioned class had to do in order to earn their livelihood.

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(iii) Anchorites or Hermits

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This form of monastic life is very old, and was found in ancient times in Egypt, Palestine, Syria, and many other countries of the East. In India, eremetic life was the earliest form of monasticism. In the Āraṇyaka literature of the pre-Buddhistic period, we are introduced to a class of Brāhmaṇas who retired to forest and were commonly known as Vānaprasthas. They studied the Āraṇyakas, resorted to the forest and performed sacrifices in their own way by means of meditation and chanting of mantras, and there is no indication in these texts that they practised austerities (tapasya).¹

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¹ For details about the life of the Āraṇyakas, see Keith, Religion and Philosophy of the Veda, II, pp. 489 ff.

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It is in the Upaniṣads (Br. Up., IV. 422; Chā. II. 23. 1) that we come across, for the first time, the terms like muni, pravrājin, and tapas referring to persons living in the forests and practising austerities.²

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² In the Ṛgveda (X. 109. 4; 154. 2. VI. 54) the words muni, yati, tapas and tapasvānu occur but particulars are lacking as to the sense they bore at the time. Muni is found to refer to those who read the

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The division of the people in the Upanisads as Pitryānists and Devayānists indicates that austerities were regarded as a better means for going to the higher planes.¹ The Pitryānists were those who lived in the villages, performed sacrifices, made gifts, practised austerities, and were engaged in works of public utility like the digging of wells etc. and passed to the higher regions along the path called Pitryāna but had to return to this world (Chā. VI. 2. 16);² while the Devayānists were those who lived in the forests and practised śraddhā, satya and tapasyā, went to the brahmaloka along the path called Devayāna and never returned to this world (Chā. V. 10. 10 1; Br. VI. 2. 15).³ The latter were certainly Sannyāsins who dwelt in the forests, practised austerities, wandered about and lived on alms.

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¹ Law, Studies in Indian History and Culture, p. 13.

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² Cf. Sakṛdāgāmiphala.

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³ Cf. Anāgāmiphala

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The term "muni" is used in the Pāli works in the sense of a person who is restrained in word, thought and speech,⁴ a sage, a good Buddhist, a monk. Like muni, the term tapassin in Pāli also bears the meaning of a person having mastery over his senses (Digha, III, pp. 48ff; Aṅguttara, IV, p. 184). It retained also the sense that a tapassin is one who resorts to the austere practices of remaining naked, or wearing barks, skins, rough stotras (VII. 56. 8), possessed occult powers (X. 136) and wore long hairs (Cf. Keśins in X. 136). In the Saṃhitās and Brāhmaṇas, the term yati occurs, but the details of the life of a yati are again lacking.

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⁴ In the Niddesa (I, p 58) Munis are subdivided into six classes: (i) āgāramunayo = those who lead a household life but know the path and doctrine, (ii) anāgāramunayo = those who retire from the world and know the path and the doctrine; (iii) sekhamunayo = those who have attained one of the 7 maggas and phalas, (iv) asekhamunayo = the Arhats; (v) pacceya-munayo = paccekabuddhas; and (vi) munimunayo = sammā-sambuddhas.

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cloths or rags etc. (see above p. 18). From the above accounts, it may safely be concluded that rigorous ascetic practices were in vogue in pre-Buddhistic times, attaining climax in the 6th century B.C., and that among them were found both Brāhmaṇas and non-Brāhmaṇas.

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(iv) Parivrājakas

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The Carakas of the Vedic period may be pointed out as the forerunners of the Parivrājakas of the 6th century B.C. The students after completing their education in Gurugṛha wandered about in order to give a finishing touch to their education by acquiring a knowledge of the beliefs and customs of different countries. The aim of the Parivrājakas, however, was different. They preferred to lead a wandering life and for 7 or 8 months of the year they roamed about with a view to ascertain the truth by coming into contact with the various expositors of truth.

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In the Bṛ. Up. (IV, 4. 22) we come across the term Parivrājaka meaning one who takes pravrajyā (going out from household life) with the object of attaining Him. Yājñavalkya (Bṛ. Up. IV. 5. 1) left his wife and took pravrajyā. In the Upaniṣads, the line of demarcation between the Sannyāsins (Yati) and Parivrājakas is not very well-defined, and the two almost overlap each other. In the Bṛ. Up. (IV. 4. 22), the Parivrājins were also called Sannyāsins and said to have been in the habit of wandering about.

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In the Pāli works, the Parivrājakas are described as actually wanderers, whose chief object was to meet distinguished religious teachers and philosophers, listen to their discourses, and enter into discussions with them “on matters of ethics and philosophy, nature lore and mysticism.”¹ The following is a typical description that we get of them in the *Nikāyas* (see e.g. *Udumbarika Sīhanāda-sutta* in *Dīgha*, III pp. 36 ff.): "Three hundred *paribbājakas* were dwelling at a *paribbājaka-ārāma* near Rājagaha. They were making great noise and were engaged in discussions about kings, ministers, wars, articles of food and luxury, and such other desultory talks. They were approached by a distinguished lay devotee of Buddha apparently with the object of having some talks with them on religious or philosophical topics. He was followed by Buddha who at the very outset of his talk condemned the ascetic practices. Nigrodha, the leader of the *parivrājakas* endorsed Buddha's view by saying that he and his followers also were not in favour of the ascetic practices. Buddha did his best to convince them of the excellences of his teaching but failed to produce any effective impression." Throughout the *Nikāyas* are scattered such accounts of Buddha or his disciples meeting *parivrājakas* and discussing with them such topics as the nature of the soul, value of ascetic life, 500 states of consciousness, eternity or finiteness of the world and the soul, karma, knowledge of Buddha, etc.¹

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¹ Buddhist India, p. 141.

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¹ See B. C. Law, *Historical Gleanings*, pp. 16-20; *Buddhist Studies*, pp. 89-112; Cf. Sarabaites and Gyrovagi or Circumcelliones. "The first kind lived together in tows and threes in a monastery, in order to live a life without rule or law; the Gyrovagi went from monastery to monastery, demanding a lodge for a few days." *ERE*, VIII, pp. 786-7.

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For the convenience of discussions, villagers and towns people provided *Kotuhalasālās*² where congregated the *parivrājakas* as also the religious teachers and philosophers.

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² *Papañcasūdani*, III, p. 235: *Yattha pana nānātitthiyā samaṇa-brāhmaṇā nānāvidham katham pavattenti*.

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Many of these *parivrājakas* hailed from the Brāhmaṇa society, but the majority, it seems, were non-Brāhmaṇas. Instances are not rare of the *parivrājakas* changing their faith and embracing that of the vanquisher in arguments.

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In the *Majjhima Nikāya*,¹ there are references to a class of *samaṇabrāhmaṇas* who lived in company with female wanderers who used to tie the hair on the top of their head (*molibaddhā paribbājikā*) while in the *Saṃyutta Nikāya*, there are references to the existence of female wanderers (*paribbājikā*).²

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¹ *Majjhima*, I, p. 305.

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² *Saṃyutta*, III, pp. 238-240; Cf. *Sutta Nipāta*, II, p. 421-422.

(v) Saṅghas or Gaṇas

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Out of these *parivrājakas* were formed, from time to time, groups who expressed their allegiance to a certain teacher, or subscribed to some common tenets, marks, or style of dress. Of these we may refer to the Māgaṇḍikas,³ Vekhanassas,⁴ Pārāsāriyas, orders of the six Teachers: Sañjaya, Pakudha, Ajita, Maṅkhali Gosāla, Nigaṇṭha Nātaputta and Gautama Buddha (Sākyaputtiya-samaṇas); and to the Jaṭilas,⁵ Teḍaṇḍikas,⁶ Aviruddhakas,⁷ and Devadhammikas. In the *Nikāyas* we have scanty accounts of the teachings of the six teachers, to be dealt with in the next chapter, but none of the rest.⁸

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³ *Majjhima*, I, pp. 501-13.

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⁴ *Ibid.*, II, pp. 40 44.

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⁵ *Ibid.*, I, p. 282.

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⁶ *Vinaya*, II, pp. 132, 196; *Lalitavistara*, p. 238.

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⁷ *Sutta Nipāta*, vs. 365, 704, 854.

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⁸ See *Buddhist India*, p. 145-6. *Aṅguttara*, III, p. 276.

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