[Pramāṇa](https://indike.org/pramana/) › [Studies](https://indike.org/pramana/ins) › [Religion and philosophy](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.religion) › [Vedic Mythology](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.religion.macdonell-1897) › c8 # Vedic Mythology c8: VI. Demons and Fiends Vedic Mythology c8 - **Language:** English ## Contents - [c8.s1 § 68. A. Vṛtra](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.religion.macdonell-1897.c8.s1) — 23 parts - [c8.s2 § 69. Individual Dāsas. — A. Śuṣṇa](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.religion.macdonell-1897.c8.s2) — 25 parts - [c8.s3 § 70. A. Rakṣases](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.religion.macdonell-1897.c8.s3) — 17 parts ### VI. Demons and Fiends ### [c8.1](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.religion.macdonell-1897.c8.1) § 67. A. Asuras. — Opposed to the beneficent gods is a body of malevolent beings called by various designations. Asura is throughout the Vedic literature the name of the celestial demons who are regarded as the regular adversaries of the gods in their mythical conflicts and who only rarely appear as present foes of men (e. g. AV. 8, 65; KS. 87¹⁶; 88¹). The term, however, occurs only a few times in the RV. with the later sense of demon. It is there found only four times in the plural with this meaning. Indra is invoked to scatter the godless Asuras (8, 85⁹). Otherwise they are only mentioned in the tenth book, always as opposed to the gods in general. The gods, it is said, smote the Asuras (10, 157⁴). Agni promises to devise a hymn by which the gods may vanquish the Asuras (10, 53⁴). The gods are even said to have placed faith in the formidable Asuras (10, 151³). The word also occurs three times as the designation of an individual demon. Bṛhaspati is besought to pierce with a burning stone the heroes of the wolfish Asura (2, 30⁴). Indra shattered the forts of the crafty Asura Pipru (10, 138³) and Indra-Viṣṇu smote the 100000 heroes of the Asura Varcin (7, 99⁵). The sense of ‘demon’ is also found in the epithet \*asurahan\*, ‘Asura-slayer’, which occurs three times and is applied to Indra (6, 22⁴), to Agni (7, 13¹), and to the Sun (10, 170²). The older Rigvedic notion of the conflict of a single god with a single demon, mainly exemplified by Indra and Vṛtra, gradually developed into that of the gods and the Asuras in general being arrayed against each other in two hostile camps. This is the regular view of the Brāhmaṇas. A new and frequent feature of the conflicts constantly described in these works is that the gods are worsted at the outset and only win by artifice. The most notable illustration of this notion is the myth of Viṣṇu taking his three strides in the form of a dwarf on behalf of the gods¹. ### [c8.2](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.religion.macdonell-1897.c8.2) In the Brāhmaṇas the Asuras are associated with darkness (ŚB. 2, 4, 2⁵)². Day belongs to the gods, night to the Asuras (TS. 1, 5, 9²). They are, however, constantly spoken of as being the offspring of Prajāpati and as having originally been equal to and like the gods³. It is perhaps for this reason that malignant spirits are sometimes included by the term \*deva\* (TS. 3, 5, 4¹; AV. 3, 15⁵). ### [c8.3](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.religion.macdonell-1897.c8.3) In the AV. and later \*asura\* means ‘demon’ only; but in the RV. the word is predominantly a designation of gods, and in the Avesta Ahura (= \*asura\*) is the name of the highest god. Thus the sense of ‘god’ is clearly the older. An attempt has been made to explain the transition from this meaning to that of ‘devil’, from national conflicts in consequence of which the Asuras or gods of extra-Vedic tribes became ‘demons’ to the Vedic Indian⁴. There is, however, no traditional evidence in support of this view. The explanation seems rather to be found in the following development within the Veda itself⁵. \*Asura\* as compared with \*deva\* has in its older sense a peculiar shade of meaning. It is especially applied to Varuṇa or Mitra-Varuṇa⁶, whose \*māyā\* or ‘occult power’ is particularly dwelt upon⁷. But the word \*māyā\* in the sense of ‘craft’ is also applied to hostile beings⁸ and is closely connected with the bad sense of \*asura\* (10, 124⁵. 138³)⁹. To the Vedic poets \*asura\* must therefore have meant ‘possessor of occult power’¹⁰ and as such would have been potentially applicable to hostile beings. In one hymn of the RV. (10, 124) both senses seem to occur¹¹. Towards the end of the Rigvedic period the application of the word to the gods began to fall into disuse. This tendency was perhaps aided by the want of a general word to denote the higher hostile demoniac power and by an incipient popular etymology¹² recognising a negative in the word and leading to the invention of \*sura\*, 'god' (first found in the Upaniṣads)¹³. ### [c8.4](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.religion.macdonell-1897.c8.4) B. Paṇis. — A group of demons of the upper air, primarily the enemies of Indra (6, 20⁴. 39²), secondarily also of his allies Soma, Agni, Bṛhaspati, and the Aṅgirases, are the Paṇis. In nearly all the passages in which these demons are named, their cows are either expressly mentioned (10, 108; 6, 39²) or alluded to as the treasure or wealth of the Paṇis (2, 24⁶; 9, 111²). There is a similar reference when Agni is said to have opened the doors of the Paṇis (7, 9²). In one passage the gods are described as having found in the cow the ghee hidden by the Paṇis (4, 58⁴). The Paṇis are comparatively powerful, for they are said to be surpassed in might by Indra (7, 56¹⁰) and not to have attained to the greatness of Mitra-Varuṇa (1, 151⁹). ### [c8.5](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.religion.macdonell-1897.c8.5) The name occurs in the RV. about sixteen times in the plural, but is also found four times in the singular as representative of the group. Thus Indra or Agni-Soma are described as having robbed the cows from Paṇi (10, 67⁶; 1, 93⁴), or Soma is invoked to strike down the voracious Paṇi who is a wolf (6, 51¹⁴). ### [c8.6](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.religion.macdonell-1897.c8.6) The word \*paṇi\* occurs with considerably greater frequency, and here oftener as a singular than a plural, in the sense of 'niggard', especially with regard to sacrificial gifts. From this signification it developed the mythological meaning of demons similar to those who primarily withhold the treasures of heaven¹⁴. ### [c8.7](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.religion.macdonell-1897.c8.7) C. The word \*dāsa\* or its equivalent \*dasyu\*, is also used to designate atmospheric demons. Its history is the converse of that of Vṛtra (§ 68). Primarily signifying the dark aborigines of India contrasted with their fair Aryan conquerors, it frequently rises to mythological rank in the RV. as the line between what is historical and mythical is not clearly drawn. This is especially the case with individual Dāsas, some of whose names even (e. g. Śuṣṇa) lend themselves to a mythological interpretation, though others seem to be those of non-Aryan men (e. g. Ilībiśa)¹⁵. ### [c8.8](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.religion.macdonell-1897.c8.8) Thus both the singular (2, 12¹⁰, &c.) and (mostly of \*dasyu\*) the plural (1, 101⁵) are frequently used to designate foes vanquished by Indra, sometimes beside the name of Vṛtra (6, 23², &c.). Hence Indra is sometimes called \*dasyuhan\*, 'Dasyu-slayer' (1, 100¹², &c.) and the combat is several times referred to as \*dasyuhatya\* (1, 51⁵. ⁶, &c.). In favour of individual protégés Indra 'sent to sleep' (i. e. slew) 30 000 Dāsas (4, 30²¹), bound a thousand Dasyus (2, 13⁹), or won cowstalls from the Dasyus for Dadhyañc (and) Mātariśvan (10, 48²). When Indra's aid is invoked against both Ārya and Dāsa foes (10, 38³, &c.) or when he is spoken of as discriminating between Āryas and Dasyus or Dāsas (1, 51⁸; 10, 86¹⁹), terrestrial foes are undoubtedly meant. This is probably also the case when Indra fights against the Dasyus in favour of the Āryas (6, 18³. 25²). Owing to the Dāsas being so frequently taken captive by the conquering Aryans, the word \*dāsa\* comes to be used two or three times in the RV. (7, 86⁷; Vāl. 8³) in the sense of 'servant', 'slave', its ordinary meaning in post-Vedic Sanskrit¹⁶. On the other hand, the Dasyus who endeavouring to scale heaven are cast down by Indra (8, 14¹⁴ cp. 2, 12¹²), the Dasyu whom he burnt down from heaven (1, 33⁷), whom he vanquished from birth (1, 51⁶; 8, 66¹⁻³), or against whom he aids the gods (10, 54¹), must be demons. This is also the case, when Indra attacks the Dasyu, scattering the mist and darkness (10, 73⁵), or wins the sun and the waters after slaying the Dasyus (1, 100¹⁸), and when the gods and the Dasyus are contrasted as foes (3, 29⁹). A demon must be meant by the Dāsa who is the husband of the waters (1, 32¹¹; 5, 30⁵; 8, 85¹⁸), which by his victory Indra makes the wives of a noble husband (10, 43⁸). The seven forts of the Dāsas, which, like those of Vṛtra (1, 174²), are called autumnal (6, 20¹⁰ cp. 7, 103⁹), are doubtless atmospheric. ### [c8.9](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.religion.macdonell-1897.c8.9) ¹ Macdonell, JRAS. 27, 168–77. — ### [c8.10](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.religion.macdonell-1897.c8.10) ⁵ Otherwise BDA. 106. — ### [c8.11](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.religion.macdonell-1897.c8.11) ⁸ BRV. 3, 80. — ### [c8.12](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.religion.macdonell-1897.c8.12) ¹⁰ ORV. 162–5; cp. Darmesteter, Ormazd et Ahriman 269 f. The Indo-Iranian meaning was according to BDA. 86 ‘Herr’ (lord). — ### [c8.13](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.religion.macdonell-1897.c8.13) ¹¹ Oldenberg, ZDMG. 39, 70, note 2. — ### [c8.14](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.religion.macdonell-1897.c8.14) ¹² On the etymology cp. v. Bradke, ZDMG. 40, 347–9. — ### [c8.15](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.religion.macdonell-1897.c8.15) ¹⁶ Cp. ‘Slave’, originally = ‘captive Slav’. — ### [c8.16](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.religion.macdonell-1897.c8.16) As the words \*dāsa\* and \*dasyu\* primarily mean ‘malignant foe’ and then ‘demon’¹⁷, it seems convenient to render them by ‘fiend’. They are frequently added as a generic term to the names of individual fiends combated by Indra, being most commonly thus applied to Namuci (5, 30⁷⁻⁹, &c.), Śambara (4, 30¹⁴, &c.), Śuṣṇa (7, 19², &c.), sometimes to Pipru (8, 32²; 10, 138³), Cumuri and Dhuni (2, 15⁹; 7, 19⁴), Varcin (4, 30¹⁵; 6, 47²¹), Navavāstva (10, 49⁶. ⁷), once to Tvaṣṭra (2, 11¹⁹) and to the dragon Ahi (2, 11²). ### [c8.17](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.religion.macdonell-1897.c8.17) ² HRI. 187. — ### [c8.18](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.religion.macdonell-1897.c8.18) ³ OST. 4, 52. 58–62; 5, 15. 18. 22. 230. — ### [c8.19](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.religion.macdonell-1897.c8.19) ⁴ Cp. BDA. 109. — ### [c8.20](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.religion.macdonell-1897.c8.20) ⁶ Op. cit. 120 ff. — ### [c8.21](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.religion.macdonell-1897.c8.21) ⁷ BRV. 3, 81 cp. GVS. 1, 142. — ### [c8.22](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.religion.macdonell-1897.c8.22) ⁹ AV. passim; cp. ORV. 164, note 2. — ### [c8.23](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.religion.macdonell-1897.c8.23) ¹³ Cp. PW. s. v. \*sura\*. — ### [c8.24](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.religion.macdonell-1897.c8.24) ¹⁴ Cp ORV. 145; otherwise HVM. 1, 83 ff. — ### [c8.25](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.religion.macdonell-1897.c8.25) ¹⁵ Cp. Wackernagel, Altindische Grammatik 1, xxii. — ### [c8.26](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.religion.macdonell-1897.c8.26) ¹⁷ Cp. AIL. 109–13. ### § 68. A. Vṛtra ### [c8.s1.1](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.religion.macdonell-1897.c8.s1.1) Of the individual atmospheric demons by far the most important and the most frequently mentioned is Vṛtra, who is the chief adversary of Indra and for whose slaughter that deity is said to have been born or grown (8, 78⁵; 10, 55). Hence the most distinctive epithet of Indra is \*vṛtrahan\*, ‘Vṛtra-slayer’. This compound is analyzed in two passages of the RV.: ‘May the Vṛtra-slayer slay Vṛtra’ (8, 78³) and ‘Vṛtra-slayer, slay the Vṛtras’ (8, 17⁹). Indra’s conflict with Vṛtra is also frequently referred to with \*vṛtrahatya\*, ‘slaughter of Vṛtra’ and sometimes with \*vṛtratūrya\*, ‘conquest of Vṛtra’. ### [c8.s1.2](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.religion.macdonell-1897.c8.s1.2) It has already been shown that Vṛtra is conceived as having the form of a serpent (§ 64). Hence he is without feet or hands (1, 32⁷; 3, 30⁸)². His head, which Indra pierces, is mentioned several times (1, 52¹⁰; 8, 6⁶. 65²), as well as his jaws, into which Indra strikes his bolt (1, 52⁶). His hissing or snorting is sometimes referred to (8, 85⁷; 5, 29⁴ cp. 1, 52¹⁰. 61¹⁰; 6, 17¹⁰). He has thunder at his disposal (1, 80¹²), as well as lightning, mist, and hail (1, 32¹³). ### [c8.s1.3](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.religion.macdonell-1897.c8.s1.3) Vṛtra’s mother is called Dānu and is compared with a cow (1, 32⁹). This name seems to be identical with the word \*dānu\*, which is several times used as a neuter meaning ‘stream’ and once as a feminine to designate the waters of heaven³. The same term is applied as a masculine, apparently in the sense of a metronymic, to Vṛtra or the dragon (2, 12¹¹; 4, 30⁷), as well as to the demon Aurṇavābha (2, 11¹⁸), and to seven demons slain by Indra (10, 120⁶). The regular metronymic Dānava is used five times to designate a demon combated by Indra and doubtless identical with Vṛtra. Indra cast down the wiles of the wily Dānava (2, 11¹⁰), he struck down the snorting Dānava (5, 29⁴), to release the waters (5, 32¹). ### [c8.s1.4](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.religion.macdonell-1897.c8.s1.4) Vṛtra has a hidden (\*ninya\*) abode, whence the waters, when released by Indra, escape overflowing the demon (1, 32¹⁰). Vṛtra lies on the waters (1, 121¹¹; 2, 11¹⁹) or enveloped by waters at the bottom (\*budhna\*) of the \*rajas\* or aerial space (1, 52⁶). He is also described as lying on a summit (\*sānu\*), when Indra made the waters to flow (1, 80⁵), or as having been cast down by Indra from lofty heights (8, 3¹⁹). Vṛtra has fortresses, which Indra shatters when he slays him (10, 89⁷) and which are ninety-nine in number (7, 19⁵; 8, 82²). ### [c8.s1.5](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.religion.macdonell-1897.c8.s1.5) There can be no doubt that the word \*vṛ-tra\* is derived from the root \*vṛ\*, 'to cover or encompass'⁴. Poets several times speak of Vṛtra as having encompassed the waters, \*apo varivāṃsam\* (2, 14², &c.) or \*vṛtvī\* (1, 52⁶), or as being an encompasser of rivers, \*nadī-vṛt\* (1, 52²; 8, 12²⁶ cp. 6, 30⁴; 7, 21³). These are clearly allusions to the etymology of the name. There is also evidently a play on the derivation when it is said that Indra 'encompassed the encompasser', \*vṛtram avṛṇot\* (3, 43³), or that in slaying Vṛtra he uncovered (\*apa vṛ\*) the prison of the waters (1, 32¹¹. 51⁴). A similar notion is implied in a passage in which the (cloud) mountain (\*parvata\*) is described as being within the belly of Vṛtra and Indra strikes the streams, placed in a covering (\*vavri\*), down declivities (cp. 1, 57⁶). Vṛtra is also said to be an encloser (\*paridhi\*) of the streams (3, 33⁶). ### [c8.s1.6](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.religion.macdonell-1897.c8.s1.6) It has been shown above that Indra's epithet \*vṛtrahan\* was understood by the Vedic poets to mean not only 'slayer of Vṛtra' but also as 'slayer of Vṛtras'. This plural, which is of frequent occurrence in the RV. and is always neuter, sometimes appears in passages mentioning the names of various individual fiends (7, 19⁴; 10, 49⁶). The result of Indra's conflict with the Vṛtras is the release of the waters (7, 34³) or of the rivers (8, 85¹⁸) which are 'encompassed', \*vṛtān\* (4, 42⁷). It is the Vṛtras which, as well as the fiends, he is to smite as soon as born (6, 29⁶) and to destroy which he has been produced by the gods (3, 49¹). With the bones of Dadhyañc he slew 99 Vṛtras (1, 84¹³) just as he shatters the ninety-nine forts of Vṛtra (7, 19⁵). ### [c8.s1.7](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.religion.macdonell-1897.c8.s1.7) The term Vṛtras, which is regularly employed with the verb \*han\*, 'to slay', also refers to terrestrial foes, as when Āryas and Dāsas are distinguished as two kinds of Vṛtras (6, 22¹⁰. 33³). There are, moreover, many passages in which it is quite as applicable to human enemies as to celestial demons. Then, however, it does not mean simply 'enemy', which is \*amitra\* (= \*inimicus\*) or \*śatru\* (cp. 6, 73²), but is employed with a side-glance at the demon Vṛtra, much as the English word 'fiend' in its present use, when applied to men, is suggestive of 'devil'. This relation of meaning is the converse of that in \*dāsa\* or \*dasyu\*, which first meant 'foe' and then 'fiend'. The use of \*vṛtra\* in the plural, as it is then always neuter, can hardly be derived from a generalization of the proper name Vṛtra, but must be based on an earlier meaning such as 'obstruction', then 'obstructor'. In the Avesta \*verethra\* means 'victory', which is, however, a secondary development of 'obstruction'. ### [c8.s1.8](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.religion.macdonell-1897.c8.s1.8) In the Brāhmaṇas Vṛtra is interpreted as the moon, which is swallowed by Indra identified with the sun, at new moon⁵. ### [c8.s1.9](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.religion.macdonell-1897.c8.s1.9) B. Vala⁶. This word occurs about twenty-four times in the RV. and is regularly connected with the release of the cows by Indra or his allies, especially the Aṅgirases (§ 54). Vala is a guardian of cows, whom Indra rent when he robbed Paṇi of his cows (10, 67⁶ cp. 6, 39²). He laments for his cows when taken by Bṛhaspati (10, 68¹⁰ cp. 67⁶). He has castles which were forced open by Indra (6, 18⁵), fences which were pierced by Indra (1, 52⁵), and an unbroken summit which was broken by Indra (6, 39²). The TS. (2, 1, 5¹) speaks of Indra having opened the hole (\*bila\*) of Vala and cast out the best beast in it, a thousand others following. There are, however, several passages in which the word is still unpersonified. The primary meaning in these cases seems to have been 'covering' or 'cave' (from the root \*vṛ\*, to cover). Thus the word is twice (1, 62⁴; 4, 50⁵) used in apposition with \*phaliga\*, the receptacle of the (atmospheric) waters (8, 32²⁵) and appears in the Naighaṇṭuka (1, 10) as a synonym of \*megha\*, 'cloud'. Indra is said to have driven out the cows and opened (\*apa var\*) the \*vala\* (2, 14³) or to have opened (\*apāvar\*) the aperture (cp. 1, 32¹¹) of the \*vala\* containing cows (1, 115). The PB. (19, 7) speaks of the cave (\*vala\*) of the Asuras being closed with a stone. In several passages the word may have either the primary or the personified sense (1, 52⁵; 2, 12³; 3, 34¹⁰). It has probably the latter in Indra's epithet \*valaṃruja\*, 'breaker of Vala', which occurs immediately after \*vṛtrakhāda\*, 'destroyer of Vṛtra' (3, 45² cp. 2, 12³). The transition to the personified meaning appears in a passage (3, 30¹⁰) in which Vala is spoken of as the stable (\*vraja\*) of the cow and as having opened (\*vi āra\*) for fear before Indra strikes. That the personification is not fully developed, is indicated by the action of Indra and others, when they attack Vala, being generally expressed by \*bhid\*, 'to pierce', sometimes by \*dṛ\*, 'to cleave', or \*ruj\*, 'to break', but not (as in the case of Vṛtra) by \*han\*, 'to slay'. The connexion of the verb \*bhid\* with the name of Vala is preserved in \*valabhid\*, which is a frequent epithet of Indra in post-Vedic literature. Here Vala is regarded as the brother of Vṛtra, and the two are associated in Indra's compound epithet \*vala-vṛtra-han\*, 'Slayer of Vala and Vṛtra'. ### [c8.s1.10](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.religion.macdonell-1897.c8.s1.10) ⁵ HRI. 197. — ### [c8.s1.11](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.religion.macdonell-1897.c8.s1.11) C. Other demon foes of Indra. Arbuda is mentioned seven times (twice oxytone, five times proparoxytone) in the RV., always as an adversary of Indra. He is a wily beast, whose cows Indra drove out (8, 3¹⁹). Indra cast him down (2, 11²⁰. 14⁴ cp. 8, 32³), trod him down with his foot (1, 51⁶), pierced him with ice (8, 32²) or struck off his head (10, 67¹²). He is mentioned two or three times with Vṛtra (or Ahi) and appears to be cognate in nature to him⁷. ### [c8.s1.12](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.religion.macdonell-1897.c8.s1.12) ² Cp. Agni in 4, 1¹¹ cp. 2, 23. — ### [c8.s1.13](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.religion.macdonell-1897.c8.s1.13) ⁶ PW.; GW. s. v. \*vala\*; BRV. 2, 319—21. — ### [c8.s1.14](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.religion.macdonell-1897.c8.s1.14) ⁷ Cp. GW. — ### [c8.s1.15](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.religion.macdonell-1897.c8.s1.15) Viśvarūpa⁸, the son of Tvaṣṭṛ, is a three-headed demon slain by both Trita and Indra, who seize his cows (10, 8⁸. 9). He is mentioned simply by his patronymic Tvāṣṭra in two or three other passages, in which he is described as rich in horses and cattle (10, 76³) and is said to have been delivered over by Indra to Trita (2, 11¹⁹; cp. pp. 61. 67). In the TS. (2, 5, 1¹) Viśvarūpa, though related to the Asuras, is spoken of as Purohita of the gods⁹. In the Mahābhārata (5, 22 f.) the three-heated son of Tvaṣṭṛ and Vṛtra are identical. ### [c8.s1.16](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.religion.macdonell-1897.c8.s1.16) ¹ BREAL, Hercule 87—99; BRV. 2, 196—208; ORV. 135—6; ZDMG. 50, 665 f. — ### [c8.s1.17](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.religion.macdonell-1897.c8.s1.17) ³ BRV. 2, 220; cp. OLDENBERG, SBE. 46, 123; according to PW. and GW. the words are distinct. — ### [c8.s1.18](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.religion.macdonell-1897.c8.s1.18) ⁸ Cp. HVM. 1, 519. 531—2. — ### [c8.s1.19](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.religion.macdonell-1897.c8.s1.19) ⁹ Cp. OST. 5, 230—2. — ### [c8.s1.20](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.religion.macdonell-1897.c8.s1.20) Svarbhānu¹⁰ is a demoniac (\*āsura\*) being mentioned four times in one hymn of the RV. (5, 40). He is described as eclipsing the sun with darkness. Indra fought against his wiles and Atri put the eye of the sun (back) in heaven. This demon is also mentioned several times in the Brāhmaṇas. In post-Vedic mythology his place is taken by Rāhu. The name appears to mean 'withholding the light of the sun'. ### [c8.s1.21](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.religion.macdonell-1897.c8.s1.21) ¹⁰ IS. 3, 164 f.; LRV. 5, 508; BRV. 2, 468; OLDENBERG, ZDMG. 42, 213; HVM. 1, 464. 507, n. 1; LANMAN, FAr. 187—90. ### [c8.s1.22](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.religion.macdonell-1897.c8.s1.22) Uraṇa, a demon slain by Indra and described as having ninety-nine arms, is mentioned only once (2, 14⁴). ### [c8.s1.23](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.religion.macdonell-1897.c8.s1.23) ⁴ Cp. PERRY, JAOS. 11, 135; Vṛtra = 'Restrainer' HRI. 94. — ### § 69. Individual Dāsas. — A. Śuṣṇa ### [c8.s2.1](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.religion.macdonell-1897.c8.s2.1) This fiend, who is mentioned about forty times in the RV., is the chief enemy of Kutsa, for or with whom Indra vanquishes him (4, 16¹²; 5, 29⁹, &c.). He is horned (1, 33¹²). He has eggs (8, 40¹⁰. ¹¹), i. e. a brood (cp. 10, 22¹¹), from which it may be inferred that he is a serpent. He is described as hissing (\*śvasana\*: 1, 54⁵)². He is six times spoken of as \*aśuṣa\*, a term which is otherwise only once applied to Agni and perhaps means 'devouring'³. He has strong forts (1, 51¹¹) or a fort (4, 30¹³), which is moving (8, 1²⁸). Indra releases the waters in shattering Śuṣṇa's forts (1, 51¹¹), obtains the receptacle of waters (\*krivi\*) in smiting Śuṣṇa (Vāl. 3⁸), or wins heavenly (\*svarvatīḥ\*) waters when he destroys the brood of Śuṣṇa (8, 40¹⁰). The name of Śuṣṇa is four times accompanied by the epithet \*kuyava\*, ‘causing bad corn or harvest’. In the two passages in which this word is used independently as the name of a demon (1, 103⁸. 104³), it may refer to Śuṣṇa. The result of the conflict between Indra and Śuṣṇa is not always the release of the waters, but is also the finding of the cows (8, 85¹⁷), or the winning of the sun (cp. § 58). Śuṣṇa in his conflict with Indra moves in darkness, is a ‘son of mist’, \*miho napāt\*, and a Dānava (5, 32⁴). In the Kāṭhaka (IS. 3, 466) Śuṣṇa is called a Dānava who is in possession of the \*amṛta\*. ### [c8.s2.2](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.religion.macdonell-1897.c8.s2.2) The above evidence seems to point to Śuṣṇa having been a demon of drought from the beginning rather than a reminiscence of some historical human foe. This view is supported by the etymological meaning which must be either ‘hisser’ (from the root \*śvas\*, \*śuṣ\*) or ‘scorcher’ (from \*śuṣ\*, ‘to dry’). ### [c8.s2.3](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.religion.macdonell-1897.c8.s2.3) B. Śambara. The name of this fiend occurs about twenty times in the RV. He is mentioned along with others, chiefly Śuṣṇa, Pipru (1, 101². 103⁸; 2, 19⁶; 6, 18⁸), and Varcin. Indra was re-inforced by the Maruts in the fight against the dragon and Śambara (3, 47⁴). Indra shook the summit of heaven when he cut down Śambara (1, 54⁴). He found Śambara dwelling in the mountains (2, 12¹¹) and struck him down from the mountain (1, 130⁷; 6, 26⁵). He struck down from the great mountain the Dāsa Śambara, the son of Kulitara (4, 30¹⁴). He struck down from the height Śambara, who thought himself a little god (7, 18²⁰). Śambara is often said to have forts, ninety (1, 130⁷), generally ninety-nine (2, 19⁶, &c.), or a hundred (2, 14⁶, &c.). The word \*śāmbara\* once occurs in the neuter plural, meaning ‘the forts of Śambara’⁴. These Bṛhaspati is said to have cleft and then to have entered the mountain rich in treasure (2, 24²). Indra vanquishes Śambara in the interest of Atithigva (1, 51⁶), but generally of Divodāsa (2, 19⁶, &c.), and sometimes of both (1, 130⁷; 4, 26³). The two names are usually thought⁵ to refer to the same person, but this is doubted by Bergaigne⁶. ### [c8.s2.4](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.religion.macdonell-1897.c8.s2.4) C. Pipru. This fiend, mentioned eleven times in the RV., is the enemy of Indra’s protégé (Vāl. 1¹⁰) Ṛjiśvan, who offers Soma to Indra and is aided by him in the conflict (5, 29¹¹; 10, 99¹¹). Indra with Ṛjiśvan (1, 101¹. ²; 10, 138³) or for him (4, 16¹³; 6, 20⁷) conquered Pipru. The fiend, who has the wiles of Ahi, possesses forts which are shattered by Indra (1, 51⁵; 6, 20⁷). When Indra slew the Dāsa Pipru as well as some other rarely mentioned beings, he shed the waters (8, 32²). When the sun unyoked his chariot in the midst of the sky, the Aryan found a match for the Dāsa: Indra acting with Rijiśvan, shattered the strong forts of the wily Asura Pipru (10, 138³). He delivered the wild beast (\*mṛgaya\*) Pipru to Ṛjiśvan, overthrew 50 000 blacks, and rent the forts (4, 16¹³). With Ṛjiśvan he drove out those who have a black brood⁷ (1, 101¹). Since Pipru is called an Asura as well as a Dāsa, it is doubtful whether he represents a human foe with a historical foundation, as some scholars think⁸. The name has the appearance of a Sanskrit word as a reduplicated derivative of the root \*par\* or \*pṝ\* (like \*si-ṣṇ-u\* from √san)⁹, possibly meaning ‘resister’, ‘antagonist’. ### [c8.s2.5](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.religion.macdonell-1897.c8.s2.5) D. Namuci¹⁰ is mentioned nine times in the RV. besides several times in the VS., TB., and ŚB. He once receives the epithet \*āsura\*, ‘demoniac’, in the RV. (10, 131⁴; ŚB. 12, 7, 1¹⁰) and is called an Asura in later Vedic texts. He is also spoken of as a Dāsa in three or four passages of the RV. (5, 30⁷. ⁸, &c.) and once as ‘wily’ (1, 53⁷). In vanquishing Namuci Indra is twice associated with Namī Sāpya as his protégé (1, 53⁷; 6, 20⁶). Namuci is slain like several other demons (2, 14⁵; 7, 19⁵) or struck down (1, 53⁷) by Indra. Indra destroyed a hundred castles, slaying Vṛtra and Namuci (7, 19⁵). The characteristic feature about the conflict is that Indra twirls (\*√math\*) off the head of Namuci (5, 30⁸; 6, 20⁶), while he is said to pierce \*√bhid\*) that of Vṛtra. Otherwise Indra is described as having twisted (\*vartaya\*) the head of Namuci (5, 30⁷) or to have twisted it off with the foam ofwater (8, 14¹³). The Brāhmaṇas also refer to Indra's cutting off Namuci's head with the foam of the waters¹¹. In one passage of the RV. (10. 131⁴·⁵) Indra is described as having drunk wine beside the demoniac Namuci, when the Aśvins aided and Sarasvatī cured him (cp. p. 87). ### [c8.s2.6](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.religion.macdonell-1897.c8.s2.6) ⁷ Acc. pl. fem.: = waters, GW. s. v. \*kṛṣṇagarbha\*. — ### [c8.s2.7](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.religion.macdonell-1897.c8.s2.7) ¹⁰ LRV. 5, 145; BRV. 2, 345—7; LANMAN, JAS. Bengal 58, 28—30; Sanskrit Reader 375b; BLOOMFIELD, JAOS. 15, 143—63; OLDENBERG, Göttinger Nachrichten 1893, 342—9; ORV. 161. — ### [c8.s2.8](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.religion.macdonell-1897.c8.s2.8) ¹¹ BLOOMFIELD, JAOS. 15, 155—6. — ### [c8.s2.9](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.religion.macdonell-1897.c8.s2.9) The etymology of the name is according to Pāṇini (6, 3, 75) \*na-muci\*, 'not letting go'. In that case it would mean 'the demon withholding the waters'¹². ### [c8.s2.10](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.religion.macdonell-1897.c8.s2.10) E. Dhuni and Cumuri¹³. The Dāsa Cumuri is mentioned six times, with one exception always along with Dhuni. The closeness of the association of these two is shown by their names once appearing as a dual compound (6, 20¹³). Indra sent them to sleep (2, 15⁹; 6, 20¹³; 7, 19⁴), the same being said of Cumuri alone (6, 26⁶). Along with Śambara, Pipru, Śuṣṇa, they were crushed by Indra, so that their castles were destroyed (6, 18⁸). They were sent to sleep or overcome by Indra (10, 113⁹) in favour of Dabhīti, who pressed Soma for him (6, 20¹³) and who was rewarded by the god for his faith (6, 26⁶). Without any mention of the two fiends, Indra is also said to have sent to sleep for Dabhīti 30 000 Dāsas (4, 30²¹) and to have bound the Dasyus for him without cords (2, 13⁹). ### [c8.s2.11](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.religion.macdonell-1897.c8.s2.11) ⁴ Perhaps through the influence of the neut. pl. \*vṛtrāṇi\*. — ### [c8.s2.12](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.religion.macdonell-1897.c8.s2.12) ⁸ LRV. 3, 149; BDA. 95; ORV. 155. — ### [c8.s2.13](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.religion.macdonell-1897.c8.s2.13) ⁹ BRV. 2, 349, but with the sense of 'filler' or 'rescuer'. — ### [c8.s2.14](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.religion.macdonell-1897.c8.s2.14) ¹³ BRV. 2, 350; ORV. 157. — ### [c8.s2.15](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.religion.macdonell-1897.c8.s2.15) Dhuni means 'Roarer' (\*√dhvan\*), the word being frequently also used in the RV. as an adjective in the sense of 'roaring, raging'. Cumuri on the other hand looks like a borrowed aboriginal name¹⁴. ### [c8.s2.16](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.religion.macdonell-1897.c8.s2.16) ¹⁴ WACKERNAGEL, Altind. Gr. 1, XXII. — ### [c8.s2.17](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.religion.macdonell-1897.c8.s2.17) F. Varcin and others. Varcin is mentioned four times, always with Śambara. He is called an Asura (7, 99⁵), but he and Śambara together are termed Dāsas (6, 47²¹). Indra is said to have shattered the hundred forts of Śambara and to have dispersed or slain the 100 000 warriors of the Dāsa Varcin (2, 14⁶; 4, 30¹⁵). The name appears to mean 'shining', from \*varcas\*, 'brilliance'. ### [c8.s2.18](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.religion.macdonell-1897.c8.s2.18) ⁶ BRV. 2, 342—3. — ### [c8.s2.19](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.religion.macdonell-1897.c8.s2.19) Several others, whose names occur only once, are mentioned, along with Vala, Śuṣṇa, Namuci and other fiends, as vanquished by Indra. Such are Dṛbhīka, Rudhikrā (2, 14³·⁵), Anarśani¹⁵, Sṛbinda (8, 32²), and Ilibiśa (1, 33¹²). They probably preserve a historical reminiscence of prominent terrestrial foes. For the last two of these names have an un-Aryan appearance; nor does it seem likely that original individual demons should have received names which do not designate a demoniac attribute like the appellations Vṛtra, Vala, and Śuṣṇa. ### [c8.s2.20](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.religion.macdonell-1897.c8.s2.20) ¹ KHF. 52 ff.; BRV. 2, 333—8; GVS. 2, 163 ff.; HVM. 1, 516; ORV. 155. 158—61. — ### [c8.s2.21](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.religion.macdonell-1897.c8.s2.21) ² Cp. \*√śvas\* and \*śvasatha\* applied to Vṛtra. — ### [c8.s2.22](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.religion.macdonell-1897.c8.s2.22) ³ Cp. ORV. 159. — ### [c8.s2.23](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.religion.macdonell-1897.c8.s2.23) ⁵ PW., GW., OLDENBERG, ZDMG. 42, 210. — ### [c8.s2.24](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.religion.macdonell-1897.c8.s2.24) ¹² Cp. KUHN, KZ. 8, 80. — ### [c8.s2.25](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.religion.macdonell-1897.c8.s2.25) ¹⁵ Cp. JOHANSSON, IF. 2, 45; PERRY, who treats of all the demons combated by Indra, JAOS. 11, 199—205. ### § 70. A. Rakṣases ### [c8.s3.1](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.religion.macdonell-1897.c8.s3.1) By far the most frequent generic name in the RV. for terrestrial demons or goblins¹, enemies of mankind, is \*rakṣas\*. It is mentioned (upwards of fifty times) both in the singular and plural, nearly always in connexion with a god, who is invoked to destroy or praised for having destroyed these demons. In two hymns of the RV. (7, 104; 10, 87) which deal with the Rakṣases, the much less common terms \*yātu\* or \*yātudhāna\* (strictly speaking ‘sorcerer’)² alternate with, and in some verses appear to be used in the same sense as, \*rakṣas\*. As the latter word designates evil spirits in general (especially in the YV.), \*rakṣas\* here perhaps expresses the genus and \*yātu\* the species³. ### [c8.s3.2](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.religion.macdonell-1897.c8.s3.2) These demons have the form of dogs, vultures, owls, and other birds (7, 104.²⁰⁻²²). Becoming birds they fly about at night (ib. ¹⁸). Assuming the form of a brother, husband, or lover, they approach women and desire to destroy their offspring (10, 162⁵). They also lie in wait for women in the shape of a dog or an ape (AV. 4, 37¹¹). Thus they are dangerous during pregnancy and childbirth (AV. 8, 6). They prowl around the bride at weddings, and little staves are therefore shot into the air to pierce the eye of the Rakṣases (MGS. 1, 10). The AV. gives the most detailed account of the appearance of the Rakṣases. They have mostly human form, their head, eyes, heart, and other parts being mentioned; but they have frequently some kind of monstrous deformity, being three-headed, two-mouthed, bear-necked, four-eyed, five-footed, fingerless, with feet turned backwards, or with horns on their hands (AV. 8, 6; HGS. 2, 3⁷). Blue and yellow or green demons are also spoken of (AV. 19, 22 4. 5)⁴. They are further described as male and female, having families and even kings (AV. 5, 22¹²; HGS. 2, 3⁷); and they are mortal (AV. 6, 32² &c.). ### [c8.s3.3](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.religion.macdonell-1897.c8.s3.3) The Yātudhānas eat the flesh of men and horses, and drink up the milk of cows (10, 87 16. 17). In order to satisfy their greed for flesh and blood the Rakṣases attack men, usually by entering them. Agni is besought not to let the Rakṣas enter (\*ā viś\*) into his worshippers (8, 49²⁰); and the AV. describes a demon of disease, which flies about, as entering into a man (AV. 7, 76⁴). These evil spirits seem chiefly to have been regarded as entering by the mouth, especially in the process of eating and drinking (AV. 5, 29 ⁶⁻⁸), but also by other entrances (AV. 8, 6³). When once within they eat and lacerate a man’s flesh and cause disease (AV. 5, 29 5. 10). The Rakṣases are also said to produce madness and take away the power of eloquence (AV. 6, 111³; HGS. 1, 15⁵). Human dwellings are invaded by them (KS. 135⁹). Some of these spirits are described as dancing round houses in the evening, braying like donkeys, making a noise in the forest, laughing aloud, or drinking out of skulls (AV. 8, 6 10. 11. 14; HGS. 2, 3⁷). ### [c8.s3.4](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.religion.macdonell-1897.c8.s3.4) The time of the Rakṣases is the evening or night (7, 104¹⁸).⁵ In the east they have no power, because they are dispersed by the rising sun (TS. 2, 6, 6³). A falling meteor is regarded as an embodiment of a Rakṣas (KS. 126⁹). It is especially the dark time of new moon that belongs to evil spirits, as to the souls of the dead (AV. 1, 16¹; 4, 36³). ### [c8.s3.5](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.religion.macdonell-1897.c8.s3.5) The sacrifice is peculiarly exposed to their attacks. Thus the RV. speaks of Rakṣases that have produced taints in the divine sacrifice and of Yātus that throw the offering into confusion (7, 104 18. 21). They are haters of prayer (10, 182³). Agni is besought to burn them in order to protect the sacrifice from curse (1, 76³). The AV. contains a spell meant to nullify the sacrifice of an enemy through the wiles of Yātudhānas and of the Rakṣas (AV. 7, 70²). These evil spirits also obtrude themselves at the sacrifice to the dead in the form of the souls of ancestors (AV. 18, 2²⁸ cp. VS. 2, 29)⁶. In post-Vedic literature this notion of the Rakṣases (there often also called \*rākṣasa\*) disturbing the sacrifice is still familiar. ### [c8.s3.6](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.religion.macdonell-1897.c8.s3.6) Agni, being the dispeller of darkness as well as the officiator at the sacrifice, is naturally the god who is oftenest opposed to them and who is frequently invoked to burn, ward off or destroy them (10, 87 ³·⁶, &c.)⁷. In this capacity he (as well as some other deities) receives the epithet of \*rakṣohan\*, ‘Rakṣas-slayer’. ### [c8.s3.7](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.religion.macdonell-1897.c8.s3.7) ³ Cp. ORV. 263, note 1. — ### [c8.s3.8](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.religion.macdonell-1897.c8.s3.8) These evil spirits injure not only spontaneously but also at the instigation of men. Thus the RV. speaks of the ‘yoker of Rakṣases’, \*rakṣoyuj\* (6, 62⁹), and refers to the Rakṣas and the Yātu of sorcerers (7, 104²³; 8, 60²⁰). One suffering from hostile sorcery drives away the Rakṣases by sacrificing to Agni Yaviṣṭha (TS. 2, 2, 3²), and in a hymn of the AV. (2, 24) demons are called upon to devour him who sent them. ### [c8.s3.9](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.religion.macdonell-1897.c8.s3.9) ² \*Yātu\* in the Avesta = ‘sorcery’ and ‘sorcerer’: Sp.AP. 218—22. — ### [c8.s3.10](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.religion.macdonell-1897.c8.s3.10) As a designation of demons \*rakṣas\* is both masculine as an oxytone and neuter as paroxytone (in the latter case meaning also ‘injury’). It may be derived from the root \*raks\* to injure⁸, which occurs in only one verbal form in the AV. (cp. also \*ṛkṣa\*, ‘injurious’). It is, however, possibly connected with the ordinary root \*rakṣ\* to protect⁹. In this case it must have meant ‘that which is to be warded off’. Bergaigne, however, thinks it may originally have signified (avaricious) ‘guardian’ of celestial treasure. ### [c8.s3.11](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.religion.macdonell-1897.c8.s3.11) B. Piśācas. A third and important class of goblins are the Piśācas. The name occurs only once in the RV. as a singular in the form of \*piśāci\* (1, 133⁵). Indra is here invoked to crush the yellow-peaked (\*piśaṅgabhṛṣṭim\*) watery (\*ambhṛṇam\*) Piśāci and to strike down every Rakṣas. In the TS. (2, 4, 1¹) the three hostile groups of Asuras, Rakṣases, and Piśācas are opposed to the three classes of gods, men, and Pitṛs. The Piśācas would therefore seem to have been specially connected with the dead. They are frequently spoken of as \*kravyād\*, eaters of raw flesh or corpses (AV. 5, 29⁹ &c.), a term which may be regarded as a synonym of Piśāca¹⁰. Agni is besought to restore to the sick man the flesh which the Piśācas have eaten away (AV. 5, 29⁵). They were thus apparently a kind of ghoul. Piśācas are also spoken of as shining in water (AV. 4, 20⁹. 37¹⁰)¹¹, or infesting human dwellings and villages (AV. 4, 36⁸). ### [c8.s3.12](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.religion.macdonell-1897.c8.s3.12) A lesser group of demons, mentioned about a dozen times in the RV. and frequently in later Vedic texts, are the Arātis¹², a personification of illiberality (\*a-rāti\*) and, owing to the gender of the word, always feminine. A group of ‘injurious’ demons, the Druhs, both male and female, is referred to about twelve times in the RV. They are Indo-Iranian, their name occurring in the Avesta as \*druj\* (§ 5, p. 8). ### [c8.s3.13](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.religion.macdonell-1897.c8.s3.13) Goblins of various kinds are usually conceived as forming an indefinite crowd, but are sometimes thought of as pairs. The latter constitute a class named Kimīdin, already mentioned in the RV. (7, 104²³; 10, 87²⁴)¹³. ### [c8.s3.14](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.religion.macdonell-1897.c8.s3.14) The nature of the spirits which surround the everyday life of man consists in injury, and that of their various species in a particular kind of injury usually indicated by their names. They are as a whole unconnected with phenomena or forces of nature, seeming partly at least to be derived from the spirits of dead enemies¹⁴. Less personal than the demons mentioned above and probably due to a more advanced order of thought, are the hostile powers which are conceived as a kind of impalpable substance of disease, childlessness, guilt, and so forth, which flying about in the air produce infection, and to deflect which to enemies is one of the chief tasks of sorcery¹⁵. ### [c8.s3.15](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.religion.macdonell-1897.c8.s3.15) Some of these terrestrial spirits are, however, not injurious, but are regarded as helping at the harvest or weaving long life for the bride, while others, with Arbudi at their head, assist in battle by striking terror into the foe (AV. 3,24. 25¹; 14, 1⁴⁵; 11, 9¹²). ### [c8.s3.16](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.religion.macdonell-1897.c8.s3.16) ¹ BRV. 2, 216—19; ORV. 262—73. — ### [c8.s3.17](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.religion.macdonell-1897.c8.s3.17) ⁴ Hopkins, AJP. 1883, p. 178. — 5 ORV. 269. — 6 Cp. CALAND, Altindischer Ahnencult, Leiden 1893, p. 3. 4. — 7 Cp. HILLEBRANDT, ZDMG. 33, 248—51. — 8 PW., GW. — 9 Cp. BRV. 2, 218; WHITNEY, Sanskrit Roots, s. v. \*rakṣ\* — 10 ORV. 264 note. — 11 Cp. ROTH, FaB. 97—8. — 12 Cp. HILLEBRANDT, l. c. — 13 WEBER, IS. 13, 183 ff. — 14 ORV. 60—2; cp. ROTH, FaB. 98. — 15 Cp. RV. 10, 103¹²; KS. 14, 22; IS. 17, 269. ## Linked texts (12) - [Ṛgvedasaṃhitā](https://indike.org/pramana/in.veda.samhita.rg.2.30) — Sanskrit - [Atharvavedasaṃhitā](https://indike.org/pramana/in.veda.samhita.atharva.8.6) — Atharvan & Aṅgiras, Sanskrit - [Taittirīyasaṃhitā](https://indike.org/pramana/in.veda.samhita.krsnayajur*taittiriya.1.5.9) — Sanskrit - [Hiraṇyakeśigṛhyasūtra](https://indike.org/pramana/in.vedanga.kalpa.grhya.hiranyakesi.2.3) — Hiraṇyakeśin, Sanskrit - [Aṣṭādhyāyī](https://indike.org/pramana/in.vedanga.vyakarana.astadhyayi.6.3.75) — Pāṇini, Sanskrit - [Mānavagṛhyasūtra](https://indike.org/pramana/in.vedanga.kalpa.grhya.manava.1.10) — Sanskrit - [Mahābhārata](https://indike.org/pramana/in.lit.mahabharata.vyasa.5.22) — Vyāsa, Sanskrit - [Vājasaneyisaṃhitā](https://indike.org/pramana/in.veda.samhita.suklayajur*vajasaneyi.2.29) — Sanskrit - [Śatapathabrāhmaṇa](https://indike.org/pramana/in.veda.brahmana.satapatha.2.4.2) — Yājñavalkya & Śāṇḍilya (Vedic teacher), Sanskrit - [Kāṭhakasaṃhitā](https://indike.org/pramana/in.veda.samhita.krsnayajur*kathaka) — Sanskrit - [Pañcaviṃśabrāhmaṇa](https://indike.org/pramana/in.veda.brahmana.pancavimsa) — Sanskrit - [Nighaṇṭu](https://indike.org/pramana/in.vedanga.nirukta.nighantu.1.10) — Yāska, Sanskrit --- Source: [https://indike.org/pramana/ins.religion.macdonell-1897.c8](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.religion.macdonell-1897.c8) · Pramāṇa