Studies in the Origins of Buddhism c3: Contents

Studies in the Origins of Buddhism c3

Language: English

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I. THE BUDDHIST CANON AND ITS CHRONOLOGY . . 1 The Abhidharma and its versions; The Vinaya and its versions; The Nikāyas and the Āgamas; The chronology of the canon, esp., of the Nikāyas.

II. THE STRATIFICATION OF THE NIKĀYAS: PROBLEMS AND METHODS . . . . . . 17 Critical résumé of previous work; The criteria of stratification; The state of doctrinal evolution; Interpolation; Vocabulary and other linguistic features; Geography; Political and Social data; Prose and verse.

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III. THE STRATIFICATION OF SUTTANIPĀTA, ITIVUTTAKA AND UDĀNA . . . . . . 51 Suttanipāta: Chinese evidence; The Aṭṭhakavagga; The Pārāyaṇa-vagga; The Mahāvagga; Conclusion. Itivuttaka: Chinese version; The various Nipātas; Conclusion; Udāna: Prose and verse; The various Vaggas; Conclusion.

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IV. EARLY AND LATE IN THE DĪGHA-NIKĀYA . . 77 Early and late in Dīrghāgama and Dīgha-nikāya; Analysis of the Suttas; Conclusion.

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V. EARLY AND LATE IN THE MAJJHIMA-NIKĀYA . . 116 The grouping and order of the Suttas; Classification and analysis of the Suttas; Conclusion.

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VI. EARLY AND LATE IN THE SAṂYUTTA-NIKĀYA . . 180 Saṃyutta-nikāya and Saṃyuktāgama; Analysis; Conclusion.

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CHAPTER PAGE

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Aṅguttara-nikāya and the Ekottarāgama; Form and Style; Partial stratification.

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PART II STUDIES IN THE HISTORICAL AND CULTURAL BACKGROUND OF EARLY BUDDHISM

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VIII. REVIEW OF THE VEDIC BACKGROUND . . . 251 The significance of Pre-Vedic Civilisation; Munis and Śramaṇas in the Vedic Age; The development of Vedic society; Gods and men; Ritual and its development; Brāhmaṇa Eschatology and Transmigration; Moral revolution; The growth of Self-knowledge; Yoga; The origins of Sāṅkhya.

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IX. RELIGIOUS CONDITIONS IN THE AGE OF BUDDHA 310 Social being and social consciousness; Social change in the Age of Buddha. The Brāhmaṇas and their religion; Popular religion; The rise of asceticism; Intellectual ferment; Early Jaina faith.

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X. THE LIFE OF BUDDHA . . . . . . 369 Sources; Early life and circumstances; Renouncing the world; The Noble Quest and Enlightenment; The spread of Buddha’s doctrine; Buddha’s personality.

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PART III STUDIES IN EARLY BUDDHIST DOCTRINES

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XI. SUFFERING AND ITS ORIGIN . . . . 397 The Noble Truths; Suffering and its place in Buddha’s teachings; The origin of Suffering; The interpretations of Pratītyasamutpāda; The two aspects of Pratītyasamutpāda; The general principle; The Middle Way; Pratītyasamutpāda; The applied form; The development of formula.

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XII. NIRVĀṆA . . . . . . . . . . 443 The interpretations of Nirvāṇa—ancient and modern; The problem of Nirvāṇa; Sambodhi and Nirvāṇa; The meaning and significance of Dharma; Nirvāṇa and Pratītyasamutpāda; The nature of Nirvāṇa; The problem of Self; Historical analysis of the Nikāyic data; Buddha's Silence; Conclusion.

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The Way and the Truth; The Buddhist Way and the Upaniṣads; Śīla–Samādhi–Prajñā; Bodhipakkhiyadhammas; Moral culture; Concentration and meditation; Stages of spiritual progress.

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XIV. EARLY BUDDHISM IN RELATION TO ITS RIVALS AND FORERUNNERS . . . . . . 541 Jainism; Sāṅkhya; Yoga; The Vedic tradition.

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XV. SOME TRENDS IN THE POST-NIKĀYA DEVELOPMENT OF EARLY BUDDHISM . . . . 558 The origin of schism; The sects; The chief controversies and lines of development.

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. . APPENDIX I—EARLY JAINA SOURCES . . 567

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APPENDIX II—THE HOME OF PALI . . . 573

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APPENDIX III—ON THE MAITRĀYAṆĪYA UPANIṢAD . . . . . . . 575

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ABBREVIATIONS AND BIBLIOGRAPHY . . 577

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INDEX . . . . . . . . . 593

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ERRATA . . . . . . . . . 600

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The *fraternities* of the Middle Ages, which were so numerous and so varied in their objects, were not all of the same origin. Some were religious, some social, some charitable, and some industrial. The religious guilds, or *gilds*, as they were often called, were associations of laymen for the purpose of performing religious duties, such as the maintenance of a chaplain, the celebration of masses, or the support of a hospital. The social guilds were formed for the purpose of mutual aid and good fellowship, and often included in their objects the relief of the poor, the sick, and the aged. The charitable guilds were established for the purpose of supporting hospitals, almshouses, and other institutions of mercy. The industrial guilds, or *craft guilds*, were associations of men engaged in the same trade or industry, and were formed for the purpose of regulating the trade, protecting the interests of the members, and maintaining the quality of their work.

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The craft guilds, which became so powerful in the later Middle Ages, were the successors of the earlier *collegia* of the Roman Empire. The *collegia* were associations of artisans and tradesmen, which were recognized by the state and had a legal existence. When the Roman Empire fell, these associations were largely destroyed, but the idea of association for mutual protection and the regulation of trade survived. In the early Middle Ages, the *gilds* began to reappear, and by the twelfth century they were firmly established in many of the cities of Europe.

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The craft guilds were organized on a democratic basis, and every member had a voice in the management of the guild's affairs. The officers were elected by the members, and the rules and regulations were made by the guild as a whole. The guilds had the power to fix prices, to regulate the hours of labor, and to determine the conditions of apprenticeship. They also had the power to punish members who violated the rules, and to expel those who were guilty of serious offenses. The guilds were thus a powerful force in the economic life of the Middle Ages, and they played an important part in the development of the modern industrial system.

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The decline of the craft guilds began in the sixteenth century, when the rise of the factory system and the growth of international trade made it difficult for the small, local guilds to compete with the larger and more efficient industrial organizations. The guilds were also weakened by the growth of the power of the state, which began to regulate trade and industry directly, and by the rise of the capitalist class, which sought to break the power of the guilds and to establish a system of free competition. By the end of the eighteenth century, the craft guilds had largely disappeared, but their influence lived on in the trade unions and other labor organizations of the modern world.