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The Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophies v7.c40: Dharmaskandha

The Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophies v7.c40

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English

Contents

Dharmaskandha

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*Summary by Fred Greiner and Karl H. Potter*

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This collection of *sūtras* appears to be the earliest of the seven canonical Abhidharma works of the Sarvāstivādins. Like the others, it is preserved in Chinese translation, specifically in a translation by the pilgrim Hsüan-tsang that was completed in 659 A.D. Jikido Takasaki has noticed Sanskrit fragments in manuscripts at Ujjain coming originally from the Gilgit area.¹ It is printed as *T* 1537 in the Chinese Tripitaka. The Chinese tradition attributes the work to (Mahā) Maudgalyāyana, whereas Yaśomitra ascribes it to Śāriputra.

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The original of the headings utilized in the *Dharmaskandha* is to be found in the *Chachakkasutta* (*Majjhimanikāya* III, 280–287). Fumimaro Watanabe compares the headings of the *Dharmaskandha* with those of the *Vibhaṅga* and the first 21 headings of the *Śāriputrābhidharmaśāstra*, noting the considerable matching of the headings despite their being ordered entirely differently in each of the three texts.²

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Warder states that this text is parallel to the *Vibhaṅga* of the Sthaviravādin tradition and was probably elaborated about the same time as the *Vibhaṅga*, i.e. in the first two centuries after the Buddha’s *parinirvāṇa*.³ Hajime Nakamura reports differing opinions among Japanese scholars, citing B. Shiio as thinking the text was composed at least 400 years after the *parinirvāṇa* and Baiyu Watanabe as having it after the *Saṅgītiparyāya* and prior to the other Sarvāstivāda Abhidharma texts.⁴ However, since it is known that passages of the *Dharmaskandha* are cited at least 15 times in the *Saṅgītiparyāya*, we assume here that it was written just prior to the *Saṅgītiparyāya*, around 300 B.C.

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There exists a Japanese translation by Baiyu Watanabe.⁵ Jikido Takakusu has summarized the work briefly.⁶ No translation into Western languages is known.

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Erich Frauwallner discusses the work in his *Abhidharma-Studien*,⁷ emphasizing the close resemblance of the treatment of topics in this text to that in Pali *Vibhaṅga*. Frauwallner believes that these were two versions of the very same work.

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The following summary is partly based on the material in Watanabe, Takakusu and Frauwallner. The summary of Chapters 2-4 is by Fred Greiner.

Chapter I: Five Precepts of Spiritual Training

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(E453c6-458b21) (The first fifteen Chapters of the work present an extended matrix comprised of ideas bearing on liberation.⁸ In this and the succeeding chapters we are provided with a *sūtra*-like text (referred to as "scripture" by Greiner, below), followed by an explanation of each term in the text.)

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The subject of the first chapter corresponds to Book Fourteen of the *Vibhaṅga*. The five precepts require the adept to avoid (1) killing, (2) stealing, (3) sexual misconduct, (4) dishonesty and (5) drunkenness.

Chapter II: Constituents of Stream-Entrance

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(E458b22-460a16) *Scripture*: At one time the Lord . . . said: There are four factors which should be cultivated with correct effort, viz., serving a good person, hearing the good *dharma*, thorough attention and practice of *dharma* and *anudharma*.⁹

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*Explanation*: (A1) "Good person" (*satpuruṣa*) means the Buddha, one of his disciples or a person who practices moral precepts, the good *dharma*, the 37 limbs of enlightenment, etc.; is separated from bad factors of attachment, hatred, delusion, etc.; and can teach sentient beings.

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(A2) "Serving a good person" means to respect, do homage to, etc. such a person.

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(B) "Hearing the good *dharma*" means that the above-mentioned good person, in order to enlighten others, correctly expounds the four noble truths of (a) frustration, (b) arising, (c) cessation and (d) path by means of countless modes of expression, i.e. that (1) birth, old age, sickness, death, association with what is frustrating, separation from what is satisfying, not obtaining what is desired, in short, all the five grasping aggregates are frustrating; (2) desire for rebirth, desire associated with delight, etc., in the past, present and future is the cause, source, etc., which can produce frustration in the present life and in the future; (3) the above-mentioned desire, etc., is destroyed, abandoned, etc., without remainder and this destruction is called refuge, without frustration, tranquility, most excellent, liberation, etc.; (4) the path which can destroy, etc., the past, present and future mass of frustration is correct view, aspiration, speech, action, livelihood, effort, mindfulness and concentration; and one delights in listening to, reflecting on, etc., this is good *dharma*.

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(C) "Thorough attention" means taking up, correctly considering, etc., the profound meaning of the good *dharma*, after having heard it.

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(D) "Practice of *dharma* and *anudharma*" means after correctly considering the meaning of the good *dharma*, one produces the five good *dharmas* which arise from departure from the household life: faith, effort, mindfulness, concentration and wisdom, cultivates these continually and with effort, and then enters the fixing of rightness (*samyaktvaniyama* = *darśanamārga* = entering the stream).

Chapter III: Perfect Serenity

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(E460a17–464c15) *Scripture*: At one time the Lord . . . said: There are four kinds of perfect serenity which should be undertaken, made firm, etc., i.e. serenity in the Buddha, the Dharma, the Assembly, and the moral conduct which is cherished by the noble ones.10

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*Explanation*: (A) "Perfect serenity in the Buddha" means, as the Lord has said: Here the noble disciples by means of the following characteristics bear in mind the Buddha as Tathāgata, perfected being, rightly enlightened one, accomplished in the three knowledges, well-gone one, knower of the world, superior one, guide of persons to be trained, teacher of gods and men, enlightened one, and Lord.11

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(A1) "Here" means this realm of sensual desire, this world or the Jambūdvīpa continent, or this body; etc. or in this place where the Buddha, his disciples, sages, etc. are born; or in regard to this *dharma* which is taught, etc.

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(A2) "Noble disciples" means those who take refuge in the Buddha, Dharma and Assembly.

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(A3) "By means of the following characteristics they bear in mind the Buddha" means by means of the following aspects, modes, etc. they produce mindfulness, nonforgetfulness, etc., of him.

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(A4) "Tathāgata" means that from the night of his realizing perfect, complete enlightenment up to the night of his entering final liberation all of his teaching was true, without perversion, etc., and that he has seen by means of wisdom which is "thus" and according to reality.

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(A5) A perfected being is of two types:

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(a) The conditioned perfected being has obtained his fruit, the acquisition of that acquistion-force (*prāptiprāpti*), the adept’s faculties, powers, moral conduct, good roots, and the ten adept factors [the eightfold path constituents plus correct liberation and correct knowledge, etc.

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(b) The unconditioned perfected being has destroyed all the afflictions of passion, etc., transcended all destinies, attained liberation, etc. The Buddha possesses all these attributes and so is worthy of receiving the best clothes, food, homage, etc.

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(A6) “Rightly enlightened one” means that the Buddha possesses omniscience, understanding, etc., of the true nature of all factors, and can realize the four truths, the four fruits of stream-enterer, etc., and the six higher faculties.

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(A7) “Accomplished in understanding and career” means that the Buddha possesses the three knowledges of an adept, viz., knowledge of past births, knowledge of births and deaths of other sentient beings and knowledge of the destruction of the evil influences and practices, the adept’s restraints of body and speech, pure eating habits, and strictly regulated deportment.

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(A8) “Well-gone one” means that the Buddha possesses the faultless good *dharma* which leads to liberation, has destroyed all the afflictions of the courses of rebirth and like the past Buddhas has travelled the true path and gone beyond the world.

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(A9) “Knower of the world” means that the Buddha knows, sees, understands, etc., the world, i.e. the five aggregates, the five courses, the six sense-bases, the various places in the three realms and from what causes they are produced, etc.

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(A10) “Superior one” means that among all sentient beings, those with no feet, two feet, etc., the Buddha is the best, most honored, etc.

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(A11) “Guide of persons to be trained” means that the Buddha employs three ways of training sentient beings which cause them to destroy all their afflictions, etc.: (a) mild—explaining good bodily, vocal and mental actions, their retributions, the good destinies (birth as a god or a man) and liberation, etc.; (b) strong—explaining evil bodily, vocal and mental actions, their retributions, the evil destinies (birth as an animal, hungry ghost or hell being), etc.; (c) both (a) and (b).

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(A12) “Teacher of gods and men” means that the Buddha is the best teacher, guide, etc., for monks, nuns, etc., and Māra, Brahmā, etc.

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(A13) “Enlightened one” means one who possesses, produces, etc., the adept knowing, seeing, wisdom, etc., of a *tathāgata*.

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(A14) “Lord” means one who possesses the superior good factors, has cultivated them, has perfected bodily moral conduct and mental wisdom, possesses infinite magnanimity, limitless factors and great majesty.

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(B) "Perfect serenity in the *dharma*" means, as the Lord has said: The noble disciples bear in mind the good *dharma* which is well-explained, present, non-burning, timely, conducive, open to all, and to be known personally.¹²

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¹² 12

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(B1) "Well-explained" means that four truths taught by the Buddha are true and not otherwise.

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(B2) "Presented" means that when one cultivates correctly the path of direct realization of the four truths, one enters into the higher realization of them [= the path of vision in this present life, and the same for the path of practice.]

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(B3) Non-burning means that the eightfold path is without afflictions.

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(B4) "Timely" means that the eightfold path is so because if one cultivates correctly the path of direct realization of the four truths, just at that time one will enter into the direct realization of them, and the same for the path of spiritual practice.

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(B5) "Conducive" means that the cultivation of the eightfold path can lead to the direct realization of the four truths.

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(B6) "Open to all" means that by cultivating the eightfold path one can know and see the four truths as they are.

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(B7) "To be known personally" means that the Buddha and his disciples know, see, etc., the four truths by themselves.

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(C) "Perfect faith in the assembly" means as the Buddha has said: The noble disciples bear in mind the assembly, i.e. the Buddha's disciples possess good mode of progress, straightforward mode of progress, proper progress, progress in *dharma* and *anudharma*, appropriate progress, progress in *anudharma*; they, the stream-enterer candidate, the stream-enterer, the once-returner candidate, the once-returner, the non-returner candidate, the non-returner, the perfected being candidate and the perfected being (thus, the eight noble persons) possess moral conduct, concentration, wisdom, liberation, and knowing and seeing liberation; they are to be offered gifts, given hospitality, respectfully saluted; they are supreme, a field of merit, and worthy of the veneration of the world.

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(C1) "Good mode of progress" means (a) by difficult practice one attains higher faculties slowly, (b) by easy practice one attains higher faculties quickly, (c) by difficult practice one attains higher faculties quickly, and (d) by easy practice one attains higher faculties slowly.

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(C2) "Straightforward mode of progress" means that the eightfold path is not circuitous, not deviating, etc.

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(C3) "Proper progress" means that the eightfold path is fit and includes the 37 aids to enlightenment.

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(C4) "Progress in *dharma* and *anudharma*" means the practice of liberation and the eightfold path, the code of discipline and the restraint of the code of discipline, the bodily and vocal restraints and pure eating habits and the undertaking of these, respectively.

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(C5) "Appropriate progress" means that the assembly has one moral conduct, one teaching, etc., for all monks and that the monks mutually greet each other, do appropriate homage, etc.

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(C6) "Progress in *anudharma*" means the practice of the eightfold path.

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(C7) "Stream-enterer candidate" means one who has obtained the noninterrupted path, i.e. is capable of immediately realizing stream entrance, but has not yet destroyed most of the passion and hatred of the sensual desire realm and is currently cultivating the direct realization of the four truths.

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(C8) "Stream-enterer" means one who has destroyed and completely known the three fetters, the view of the individual as real, doubt and addiction to moral precepts and vows, but cannot yet seek to realize the once-returner fruit.

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(C9) "Once-returner fruit candidate" means one who is capable of immediately realizing the once-returner fruit, has destroyed most of the attachment and hatred of the sensual desire realm and is currently cultivating the direct realization of the four truths.

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(C10) "Once-returner" means one who has destroyed the above-mentioned three fetters and most of the attachment and hatred of the sensual desire realm, but cannot yet seek to realize the non-returner fruit.

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(C11) "Non-returner fruit candidate" means one who is capable of immediately realizing the non-returner fruit, has destroyed the attachment and hatred of the sensual desire realm, and is currently cultivating the direct realization of the four truths.

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(C12) "Non-returner" means one who has destroyed the five lower fetters, i.e. the three above-mentioned and the attachment and hatred of the sensual desire realm but cannot yet seek to realize the worthy one fruit.

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(C13) "Perfected being fruit candidate" means one who is capable of immediately realizing the fruit of being perfected.

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(C14) "Perfected being" means one who has destroyed all of the afflictions in this present life.

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(C15) "Those who possess moral conduct, concentration, wisdom, liberation, and knowledge and vision of liberation" are the non-adepts and adepts.

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(C16) "To be offered gifts" means worthy to receive offerings, homage, etc.

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(C17) "To be given hospitality" means worthy to receive offerings, etc., because for even a small good deed done (for the assembly), one obtains a great benefit.

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(C18) "To be respectfully saluted" means worthy to be welcomed, bowed to, etc., by everyone.

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(C19) "Superior" means that among all groups the assembly is the best, most honored, etc.

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(C20) "Field of merit" means that even if a small gift is given, etc., to the assembly, one obtains a great beneficial result from that.

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(C21) "Worthy of the veneration of the world" means that the noble disciples should be honored by the world because they have practiced the pure path and possess the three pure actions (of body, speech and mind) which are venerated.

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(D) "Moral conduct cherished by the noble one's" means the undefiled bodily and vocal restraints and the pure eating habits which are cherished, followed, etc. by them.

Chapter IV: Fruits of Monkhood

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(E464c16–465a2) *Scripture*: At one time the Lord . . . said: There are four fruits of the monk: stream-entrance fruit, once-returner fruit, non-returner fruit, and perfected being fruit.¹³

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¹³ 13

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*Explanation*: (A) "Stream-entrance fruit" is of two types: (1) Conditioned means the acquisition of that fruit, the acquisition of that acquisition, the non-adept faculties, powers, moral conduct, good roots, the eight non-adept factors (= the eight limbs of the path), etc. (2) Unconditioned means the destruction of the three fetters (view of the individual as real, etc.), etc., and 88 latencies, etc.

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(B) "Once-returner fruit" is of two types: (1) Conditioned means the same as for (A). (2) Unconditioned means the destruction of the greater part of attachment, hatred, delusion, etc.

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(C) "Non-returner fruit" is of two types: (1) Conditioned means the same as for A. (2) Unconditioned means the destruction of the five lower fetters, etc., and 92 latencies, etc.

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(D) "Perfected-being fruit": defined at Chapter II, A 5.

Chapter Five: Four Modes of Progress

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(E465a22–466b14) This Chapter "is devoted to the mental experience of an adept, as he proceeds from lower to higher stages of spiritual progress. In short, he acquires six transcendent powers."¹⁴

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¹⁴ 14

Chapter Six: Four Traditional Practices of Monks

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(E466b15-467c22)

Chapter Seven: Four Right Exertions

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(E467c23-467c11) This Chapter corresponds to Book Eight of the *Vibhaṅga*.

Chapter Eight: Four Supernatural Powers

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(E471c12-475e23) These involve the gaining of concentration, striving and conditioning through (1) desire, (2) energy, (3) awareness, and (4) investigation. It corresponds to Book Nine of the *Vibhaṅga*.

Chapter Nine: Four Applications of Mindfulness

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(E475e24-479b23) This Chapter corresponds to Book Seven of the *Vibhaṅga*.

Chapter Ten: Four Noble Truths

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(E479b24-482a25) Corresponds to Book Four of the *Vibhaṅga*.

Chapter Eleven: Four Trances

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(E482a26-485b17) Corresponds to Book Twelve of the *Vibhaṅga*.

Chapter Twelve: Four Boundless States

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(E485a26-488b17) Corresponds to Book Thirteen of the *Vibhaṅga*.

Chapter Thirteen: Four Immaterial States

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(E488b18-489a28) Also treated in Book Twelve of the *Vibhaṅga*.

Chapter Fourteen: Three Spiritual Practices of Concentration

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(E489a29-491b7) These are (1) worship, (2) reverence, and (3) offering.

Chapter Fifteen: Seven Conditions of Enlightenment

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(E491b8–494b end) Corresponds to Book Ten of the *Vibhaṅga*.

Chapter Sixteen: Miscellaneous

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(E494c1–498b7) A long list of factors is divided into defilements and afflictions, and explained. The list closely matches the list of small items in Book Seventeen of the *Vibhaṅga*.

Chapter Seventeen: Twentytwo Faculties

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(E498b12–499c24) Corresponds to Book Five of the *Vibhaṅga*.

Chapter Eighteen: Twelve Bases

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(E499c26–500c25) Corresponds to Book Two of the *Vibhaṅga*.

Chapter Nineteen: Five Aggregates

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(E500c26–501b23) Corresponds to Book One of the *Vibhaṅga*.

Chapter Twenty: Sixtytwo Elements

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(E501b24–505a8) Corresponds to the *Vibhaṅga* Book Three.

Chapter Twentyone: Twelve-Fold Chain of Dependent Origination

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(E501b25–505a9) Corresponds to Book Six of the *Vibhaṅga*.

Cites (1)