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Education in Ancient India c12.s2: Section B. Period-wise Survey of Ancient Indian Education

Education in Ancient India c12.s2

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Section B. Period-wise Survey of Ancient Indian Education

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Four Historical Periods : We now proceed to take a bird’s eye view of the general condition of education in the different periods of ancient Indian history. We shall divide it into four periods for the purpose of our survey. The first period will be from pre-historic times to *c.* 1000 B.C. It may be conveniently described as the Vedic age, as most of the Vedic literature was composed during this period. The second period will extend from *c.* 1000 B.C. to *c.* 200 B.C. It may be described as the age of the Upanishads, the Sutras and the epics, as these works can be asigned to this period. The Bārhadrathas, the Śiśunāgas, the Nandas and the Mauryas were the leading political powers of this period. and so the age may be conveniently described as the age of the Nandas and Mauryas. The third period will extend from c. 200 B.C. to c. 500 A.D. It may be described as the age of the Dharmaśāstra, as most of the leading works on this subject were written during this period. It can also be described as the age of the Śuṅgas and the Sātavāhanas, the Vākāṭakas and the Guptas, as these were the leading political powers of the period. The fourth period will extend from c. 500 A.D. to c. 1200 A.D. It may be described as the age of the Purāṇas and digests (Nibandhas), as society was guided mainly by the theories and practices recommended in these works. Politically India was divided into many small kingdoms during this age. Kings Harsha and Bhoja were the most prominent rulers during this period. The age therefore may be described as the age of Harsha and Bhoja. We shall now proceed to describe the condition of education as a whole in each of these four periods.

The Vedic Period

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(upto c. 1,000 B.C.)

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Condition of Culture and Education : This age marked the beginning of Indian culture, literature and science and so naturally not much progress was made in the different departments of knowledge. Its literary and scientific achievements were naturally less dazzling and comprehensive than those of the succeeding age. People of this period however had a very keen desire to make progress in the realm of knowledge. They had realised that it was intellectual efficiency and equipment that was most essential for progress in culture and knowledge. It was emphasised that gods would be friends of only those who are wise and learned. Those only were regarded as learned who could not only recite the texts but also understand and interpret them. Every householder of the age therefore naturally regarded the education of his children as a sacred duty. No distinction was made in this connection between boys and girls; the education of both received the same attention at least upto the higher stage. Ordinarily the guardian discharged his duty to teach his wards so regularly and successfully that no necessity was felt for a long time either for the professional teacher or for the public school. Secular literature was yet to be developed and so the literary course was predominently religious. People however had an open, free and enquiring mind and were eager to explore new realms of knowledge. Great emphasis was laid on the proper development of debating powers; boys and girls who were successful in debates were highly honoured. Education however did not produce mere talkers but transformed its recepients into man of action as well. This would become quite clear from the successful manner in which the Aryans of the age spread their culture and extended their political influence. The Aryan community was a compact and homogenous one during this period, and there was not much difference in the educational level of the different classes. Priests however generally used to specialise in literary and religious education. Warriors and agriculturists also received some literary education, but it was naturally not so deep or wide as that of the priests or the poets. They used to devote the greater part of their educational course in mastering the art of war, or the processes of agriculture or the methods of arts and crafts. The followers of the latter were held in high esteem: some of them like Aśvins and Ribhus were even deified. The educational system of the age was successful in forming character, developing personality, promoting the progress of different branches of knowledge and achieving social efficiency and happiness.

The Upanishad-Sūtra Period (c. 1000 B.C. to c. 200 B.C.)

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General Condition of the Age : This period can justly be regarded as the most creative period of Hindu culture and literature, arts and sciences. The foundations of whatever is the best in Hindu culture and glorious in Hindu achievements were laid down during this period. Metaphysics made remarkable progress, as is evidenced by the Upanishadic, Jain and Bauddha works; the foundations of almost all the later systems of philosophy were also laid down. Philology and grammar were well developed and the literary activity in the legal literature commenced. Speculations in the sphere of political thought were original and fruitful. Astronomy and mathematics, medicine and surgery, mining and metallurgy began to be cultivated and sculpture and architecture recorded remarkable progress, especially towards the end of the period. Effort was also made to popularise culture and knowledge by transforming the epic of the Bhārata war into an encyclopædia of religion and ethics.

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The Condition of Education : These manifold achievements in different spheres became possible because Indians had still a free, open and enquiring mind and were making strenuous efforts to extend the bounds of knowledge and to ensure its transmission to posterity. With a view to enlist the help of the whole society for this work, Upanayana ritual was made obligatory for the whole Aryan community at about the beginning of this period. This gave a great impetus to the spread both of literacy and higher education. As learning became more and more extensive in course of time, education in the family became impracticable, and society began to encourage distinguished scholars to become regular teachers. They used to organise private schools for higher studies, relying mainly on the voluntary contributions of students taking their advantage. Brahmacharya discipline was still rigorous, but towards the end of the period the marriageable age of girls began to be gradually lowered, which adversely affected female education. During the earlier part of this period, however, there was no dearth of women philosophers and scholars, some of whom used to organise schools and hostels for girls. Co-education was however not unknown. Majority of girls received their education at home, as was the case with boys also during the earlier period. The educational system paid as much attention to the cultivation of the Vedic studies as to that of grammar and philology, mathematics and astronomy, epic and legal literature. Professions became specialised towards the end of this period and society began to feel it advantageous that they should become hereditary in order to encourage further efficiency. The ordinary soldier or agriculturist used however to receive a fair amount of cultural education. The training imparted to the doctor and the sculptor was fairly practical and efficient, and the average intelligence of the artisan class was fairly high. The skilled worker was respected by society. Education was regarded as a serious proposition and society was anxious that its benefits should be extended to as large a class as possible. Various steps were being proposed and adopted to see that students did not stop their studies at the end of their courses. Educational system continued to be successful in forming character, building up personality, extending the bounds of knowledge and preserving the heritage of the past. It undoubtedly promoted social happiness and efficiency; it enabled India to be at the vanguard of progress in the contemporary world and repel and subjugate the powerful Greek enemy.

The Age of the Dharmaśāstra (c. 200 B. C. to c. 500 A. D.)

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Characteristics of the Age: This period may be described as the age of critical reflection and specialisation. The achievements of the preceding creative period were critically examined and special systems like the Sāṃkhya and the Yoga, the Nyāya and the Vaiśeṣika, the Vedānta and the Mahāyāna Buddhism were evolved; this undoubtedly marked considerable progress in critical thought. The creative vein however was still active, though in a less marked degree than before. Its activity was particularly noteworthy in the realm of classical literature and sacred law, painting and sculpture, mathematics and astronomy. A considerable part of the religious literature was now canonised, but Hindus still had an open, free and enquiring mind. Philosophical systems continued to be called orthodox, though they had no place in them even for God. Heterodox systems like the Jainism and the Buddhism were studied by the Hindus and the theories and dogmas of Hinduism were analysed and examined by the Jains and the Buddhists; this led to considerable progress in logic and metaphysics. Greeks were no doubt regarded as unholy foreigners (Mlechchhas), but nevertheless their achievements in the realm of sculpture, coinage and astronomy were carefully studied and assimilated, which led to considerable progress in all these sciences.

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The Condition of Education : There was however a distinctive setback to the cause of education as a whole during this period. Child marriages became the order of the day towards the end of the period, and so female education suffered very considerably. Only daughters of high class families used to receive education during this period. The lowering of the marriageable age of girls naturally involved the corresponding lowering of the marriageable age of boys. Brahmacharya discipline consequently became slack and nominal and towards the end of this period; the educational system could produce only a limited number of young men possessing a developed personality, characterised by self-confidence and self reliance. During this period Upanayana of Kshatriyas and Vaishyas first became a mere formality. This development gave a severe blow to the general and cultural education of the warrior and the farmer, the trader and the artisan, and this reduced their general efficiency. Their education gradually began to become too much specialised and narrow. The same defect arose in the course of time in liberal education also. There was too much of specialisation in logic and philosophy, astronomy and mathematics; there was no broad-based secondary course of education. The educational system was still able to promote social efficiency and happiness and secure the preservation and spread of national culture; it enabled society to absorb and assimilate a number of foreign tribes whom it could not drive out by military force. Towards the end of this period the higher education of the cultured classes received a great impetus and encouragement by the rise of organised public schools and colleges. On account of the liberal support which these institutions received from the state and society, they were able to impart free education. Several colleges for higher education became famous centres of education, which in the course of time began to attract students from abroad as well. The training in practical sciences like sculpture and architecture, medicine and metallurgy was still very efficient, if somewhat narrow.

The Age of the Purāṇas and Nibandhas (c. 500 A. D.—1200 A. D.)

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Educational Achievements of the Age :—India continued to enjoy the reputation of an international centre of education during this period also. Down to c. 900 A. D. Tibetan and Chinese students continued to flock in her eastern Universities, and her doctors used to be summoned in Western Asia for curing royal patients and organising state hospitals. Education had not become mere book learning; Indian teachers excited admiration of foreign students by their remarkable powers of explanation and exposition. Graduates of this period were remarkable for their logical acumen and mastery in Sanskrit, though the latter was no longer the spoken tongue. Facilities for free higher education continued to be ample; if with the decline of Buddhism the number of monastic colleges decreased, the loss was more than compensated by the rise of numerous temple colleges. Brahmacharya discipline no doubt became nominal owing to early marriages; even married students, however, showed commendable perseverance in pursuing protracted courses of studies. Poor students continued to maintain themselves by begging if necessary; the number of teachers eager to follow the high code of the profession, which enjoined free tuition, still continued to be very large. Society's earnestness for education was thus remarkable.

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Educational Defects of the Age :—Though thus higher education continued to prosper, the education of the masses suffered during this period. Upanayana now completely disappeared from Kshatriyas and Vaishyas; this gave a serious blow to their cultural and literary education, reduced the percentage of literacy among them and made their education very narrow. Useful arts and professions began to be regarded as plebian and were boycotted by the higher sections of Brahmanas; as the services of the best intellect in society were no longer available for the development of arts and crafts, they ceased to make any progress worth the name. Growing orthodoxy of the age disapproved of dissection and condemned the pursuit of agriculture on the ground that it involved killing of insects at the time of ploughing. Medical education in the course of time became less efficient; surgery went out of vogue and agriculture became a neglected and plebian profession. The marriageable age of girls was further lowered during this period; girls were ordinarily married at the age of 10 or 11. This naturally gave a death blow to the female education. A few ladies no doubt appear as poetesses during this period; they were however exceptions rather than the rule. Education could not reach the masses as the medium of higher instruction was Sanskrit, which was no longer the spoken tongue. No serious or concerted effort was made to develop literature in vernaculars in order to facilitate the infiltration of knowledge to the masses. In the sphere of higher education specialisation was carried to too great an extreme; the logician, the mathematician and the rhetorist, for instance, did not possess much knowledge of the problems and achievements of one another. The preservation of ancient literature and culture was the main concern of the educational system; it was unable to produce many scholars who could substantially enrich it. The creative vein in the Hindu intellect could still be seen in the realm of poetics and to a less extent, in those of philosophy, literature and astronomy. It was however quite feeble, compared to its strength and achievements in the preceding ages. The situation deteriorated further by the growing self-conceitedness of the scholars of the age and their refusal to benefit by the knowledge and experience of outsiders. They had no longer a free, open and enquiring mind; they would refuse to accept what was not in consonance with the views of sacred scriptures. This stood in the way of progress in sciences like astronomy and medicine, history and geography. During the medieval times great importance was attached by Indian Pandits, as by Jesuitical scholars, to the cleverness and skill in mere wordy warfare; a person was hailed as a great scholar if he could perceive distinctions where none existed and silence his opponent by a brilliant display of the resources of a well trained memory. Depth of scholarship thus often went unrecognised and shallow and unscrupulous debators could often pose as great scholars. The general state of affairs regarding education further deteriorated during the period 1200-1800 A. D. owing to the growing impoverishment of Hindu society and the withdrawal of active state encouragement to its educational system during the period of Muslim ascendancy.