Education in Ancient India c20: Index

Education in Ancient India c20

Language: English

Index

c20.1

Admission procedure 181. Admission test 81-2, 118. *Agrahāra* villages as centres of education, 139-42. *Aims of education*; 8-20; how far achieved, 242-49. *Aksharasvikaraṇa*, a *Sanskāra* 265-68. Alberuni, on Brahmagupta's dishonesty, 252; on Hindu scholarship, 256-7, 262; on vernacular education, 260. Al-Idrisi, on Indian character, 245. Alms, for students, compulsory for householders, 93 *Annaprāśana*, a *Sanskāra*, 266. Apprentice system, 198-200; in Europe, 200, n. 2. Arabs, borrow Hindu medicine system, 188; on Hindu character, 245. Arts and crafts, training in, 198-202, attitude towards, 127-8, 258. *Āryabhaṭa* on eclipses, 252-3. *Āśramas* as education centres, 32-3 Association, 29-30. Ayurvedic Upanayana 289-91. Astronomy and astrology, 152, 252-3

c20.2

c20.3

Begging, see under *Bhikshā-charaṇa*. Benares, as education centre, 110-114. *Bhikshā*, for students, compulsory for householders, 93. *Bhikshācharaṇa*, how far real in daily life, 64-66; why prescribed, 66; when a disgrace, 65. Boarding arrangements, 76 *Brahmanchāri*, his paraphernalia, 275-6. See under Student for further information. *Brahmacharya*, its duration, 89; rules of, 66-8. Brahmagupta, his intellectual dishonesty, 252-3. Brahmanas, and Veda teaching, 40; as teachers of non-vedic subjects, 41; as teachers, consequences, 249-50. Buddhism and education, 225-33. Buddhist Universities, Organisation of, 73-4. Buildings of schools and colleges, 75-6.

c20.4

c20.5

Capitals, as education centres, 103. Caste system, its influence on education, 40-6; and Buddhism, 46-7. and Upanayana time, 272-3; and *Sāvitrī* Mantra, 278-9; and professions, 40-1. Character, formation of, 10-11, 66-7; Indian, estimate of, 244-5. *Chaula* and primary education, 267. *Chhurikābandha*, 292-3. Civic duties, and education, 248-9. Classes, their strength, 82-3. Co-education, 211. College session, its duration, 85-6. Colleges as organised institutions, non-existent in early times, 70-2 and at Taxila, 106 and Benares, 112; but existing at Nālandā, 114-6; Vikramasilā, 126-9; Ennāyirum, 132-3; Tirumukkudul, 133; Tiruvorriyur, 134; Salotgi, 130-2. Commercial education, 195-7. Corporal punishment, 27-28. Courses, their duration, 89-92; their organisation, 88-89-96. Cramming, 161. Creative vein disappears, 254-5.

c20.6

Culture, preservation of, as an aim of education, 17-19; 247-8. Curriculum, literary in early Vedic period, 143-5; in late Vedic period 145-6; during 1000 B. C to c. I A. D., 147-9; during 1-1200 A. D., 149-57; in Buddhist institutions, 155-7, 230-1.

c20.7

D Danda of the Brahmachāri, 280 Debates, 163. Debts, three 18-92. Degrees, 168-9. Dhanurvedic Upanayana, 291. Dharmasastra age, education in, 238-40. Discipline, rules of, 66-9. Doctors, status of, 184-189.

c20.8

E Eclipse, 252-3. Education, conception of, 3-8; Aims of, 8-20; Aims of, elsewhere, 20-1; and how far achieved 243-49: when to commence, 26, 272-3; to whom to be given and to whom not, 53-4; how far free, 78-81; in post-college life, 26-7; through private individuals for a long time, 71; system, not other-worldly, 249; characterised by depth, but not equally by breadth, 261; religious bias in, in India and Europe, 249; effect of religion's influence in India, 249-253; and in Europe 254; system becomes degenerated, 262-3; general estimate, 263-4; centres, varieties of, 103; primary, female and useful see under Primary education, Female education and Useful education respectively. Educational finance, 92-102: Educational institutes, rise of 72 Ennayiram temple college, 132-3. Examinations, 167-9.

c20.9

F Family, and education, 33-6. Fees, 78-81; in ancient Greece 78n. 2

c20.10

Female education and family, 35; two classes of girl students, 207; Coeducation, 211; Upanayana and Vedic studies of girls, 204-6, 212-5; attainments of lady scholars, 207-8, and Buddhism 209, 220, 231; extent of, 212; in cultured families, 217; in ordinary families, 219; in ruling families 220-2; and economic independence, 222-3; in Muslim period, 223-4; and Jainism, 244.

c20.11

Fine arts, training in, 200-1; and women, 217. Foreign scholarship, attitude towards, 257; Foreign travel, 257 Forests, as centres of education, 32-3;

c20.12

G Gāyatri Mantra, 278-9. Girdle, its significance, 275. Government, recruits scholars for its posts, 98; patronises distinguished scholars and colleges, 97; gives land grants 97; cash grants, 98, taxation exemptions and other concessions to scholars, 98-99; does not control education, 99-100; in the west, and education, 100-101. Grammar study, 152-3. Greek education at Taxila, 105-6. Greeks on Hindu character, 244. Grihanishkramana, a Sanskāra, 266. Guilds, in India and useful education, 196-7.

c20.13

Guru, see under teacher. Gurudakshinā, 78-80; Gurukula system, 30-2.

c20.14

c20.15

Habit, importance of, 28. Harun Khalifa, invites Hindu doctors, 188. Hereditary professions, their effect on education, 197. Heritage, ancient, its preservation, an aim of education, 17-18. 247 Holidays, 86-88. Home education, 33-5. Home work, 63. Hospitals, 186-7; combined with colleges, 133-135. Hours of school, 83-5.

c20.16

c20.17

Ibn Batuta, on Hindu character, 245. Income of teachers, 56-7. Individual attention, 164. Industrial training, attitude towards, 197-8; efficiency of, 202; degenerates in medieval times, 203. Interdining, 40. Intellect, when creative, 254; when assimilative, 255;

c20.18

c20.19

Jesuitical educatiou, 256. Judgment, power of, in students, 15.

c20.20

c20.21

Kalās, 64, App. IV. Kalas college, 189. Karman theory, 37. Kharag-bandhāi, 293. Kindergarden stage, 171. Kings, their duty to patronise learning, 96; specific instances of, as patrons of learning, 97; assumed no patronising attitude, 100; see also under Government. Kshatriyas, their Upanayana and Vedic studies, 49.

c20.22

c20.23

Lady teachers, 210. Laymen, education of, 155. Learning, respect for, 95-6. Libraries, 119, 125, 158. Life-long students, 91-2. Limitation, law of, and students, 99. Literacy, extent of, 174, 179, 181; in ancient Athens and Sparta and medieval Europe. 259. Logic, courses in, 154. Luther, on state's duty to help education, 101; first encourages but later discourage reason, 254.

c20.24

c20.25

Malkapuram temple college, 135-6. Marco Polo, on Indian character, 245 Marriage time, 215-6; and student life, 25. Masses, education of, 259. Medhājanana, a ritual, 281. Medical education, 184-90; and women, 219. Megasthenes, on Indian character, 244. Mekhatā, 275. Method of teaching, see under Teaching. Middle Ages, a period of intellectual repression, 255-6. Military education, 190-5. Monastic colleges, administration of, 73-4, 121. Monasteries, as centres of education, 73-4, 114-29; in Europe and education, 73. Monitorial system, 165-6. Monks, courses for, 156. Muslim rule, its effect on Hindu education, 183, 262-8.

c20.26

c20.27

Naishthika Brahmachāri, 91-2. Nālandā University, 114-123; its rise and progress, 114-5 lay-out 115; boarding arrangements, 116: number of students, 117, its curriculum, 120; its standard of admission, 118; its libraries, 119; its fame in Java and Tibet, 122; how destroyed, 123. Night classes, 84-5. Nature and Nurture, their influence on education, 36-9. Non-Brāhmaṇas, as Vedic teachers 40.

c20.28

c20.29

Originality disappears, 255.

c20.30

c20.31

Pauranic age, education in, 240-2. Personality, development of, as aim of education, 12-13, 246-7. Peshwa, his help for education, 98. Philosophy, study of, 154. Physical exercises, 63. Physical punishment, 27-8. Pitṛiṛiṇa theory, and education, 18. Poetesses, 217-8. Poetry course, the study in, 153. Prakrit, during 200 B.C.—800 A.D. 151-2; development of, arrested, 152; in primary education, 180; effect of the neglect of, 259-260. Pre-school education, 33-4. Priests as teachers, in India, 40; in Europe, 79. Primary education, upto 1000 B.C. 171-2; during 1000-200 B. C. 172-5; during 200 B. C.—800 A. D. 175-80; during 800 A. D. —1200 A. D., 180-89; why not once important, 170; and Buddhism, 231. Principles of education 25-35. Private teachers, 71; and fees, 79. Promotions, 164-167. Punishment, physical, limitation on, 27-8. Punjab, condition of education in at c. 1850 A. D., 95-6.

c20.32

Purāṇas, study of, 153-4, reverence for, 252. Princes, education of, 193-4. Princesses, education of, 220-2.

c20.33

c20.34

Raghu, a king, his concern for education, 80 n. 2. Rāhu-Ketu theory of eclipses, 252-3. Rationalism, properly cultivated in early times, 250; discouraged in later days, 251; its effect on research, 252; discouraged in Europe also in medieval times, 254. Religion, its influence on education, 9; gives rise to educational rituals like Vidyārambha, 265; Upanayana 268; Upākarma, 283; does not make education other-worldly, 249; helps education, 94-5, 269; discourages reason, 250-4; discourages secular studies, 249-50. Reservation of seats for subjects in colleges, 132-34. Rituals, educational, App. I. Routine, importance of, 29.

c20.35

c20.36

Sacred Thread, App. II. Salaries of teachers, 133; 57-58. Salotgi temple college, 130-2. Samāvartana, a privilege of the few; but later extended to all 287-8; ceremony described, 288; of Dhanurveda students, 292-3. Sanskrit, ascendancy of, 151; its effect on Prakrits, 151-2 and on the spread of education 259-60; courses in, 152-3. Sarvajñapura Agrahāra college 189. Sattras for the poor students, 94. Sāvitrī-Mantra, 278-9. School-hours, 88. Self-confidence and students, 13-4

c20.37

Self-respect encouraged in students, 13. Self-restraint and student life, 14. *Shadaṅgas*. 305. *Sippas* or branches of useful education. 306. Ship-building, 202. *Smṛiti* age, education in, 149-57. *Smṛitis*, study of, 153; reverence for, 252, *Snāna*, see under *Samāvartana*, Social efficiency, as aim of education, 15-16. Society, its help for education, 93-5; makes provision for poor students; 312-3. Sources. 2-3. *Śrāvaṇi*, why so called, see under *Upākarma*.

c20.38

Staff of the students, 280. State, see under Government. Strabo on Indian character, 244. Spinning, and women, 222-3. Students, their duties towards teachers. 58-60; how far working in their teachers' houses, 59-60; their relation' with their teachers in after-life, 62; their marriages with teacher's daughters, 61-2; daily routine of their life, 62-4; their duty to beg, how far discharged, 64-66; general rules for their life, 66-8; how far staying with their teachers, 30-1; boarding arrangements for, 76; and marriage, 25, 215-6; free boardings for, 116, 182, 135.

c20.39

Shudras, and Vedic studies, 44-5. Surgery, training in, 185-6. Svetaketu on post-collegiate education, 284.

c20.40

c20.41

Taxila, as centre of education, 104-10; its early history, 104; Greek influence over, 105-6; not a University of the modern type, 106; its all-India fame, 107-8; boarding arrangements, 108; subjects taught at, 109; how destroyed, 109-10. Taxation. exemption from, 99. Teacher, his importance, 48; regarded as a spiritual father, 49; why venerated, 50, his training, 51-2; qualifications of, 52; usually a householder, 33; his income, 56-8; 133-4; his caste, 41-2; his relations with students, 60-1; must not delay education, 53; must not stipulate for fees, 78; must take filial care of students, 55; must not with-hold anything from students, 54; domestic work in his house, 59; his high code of honour, 53; his power of inflicting physical punishment, 27-8; daughters of, marrying students, 61-2, Women as, 210. Teaching, method of, in Vedic period, 144-146; 148; in Vedic classes, 158-9; in primary schools, 176; the place of cramming in, 161; and of exposition, 162-3, individual attention in, 164; senior students' help in, 165. Temple Colleges, 74, 130-8; Text books, competition for, 156-7. Tibet and Nālandā scholars, 122, and Vikramasilā scholars, 126. *Tirthas* as centres of education, 104. Tirumukkudal temple college, 133. Tiruvorriyur temple college, 134. *Tols*, 141, Tonsure, 267. Training colleges for teachers, 51. Treasure-trove laws, 99.

c20.42

c20.43

Ugrabhūti, his efforts to get his book prescribed, 156.

c20.44

Universities, 72-4. 117. *Upādhyāya*, 210. *Upākarma*, at the beginning of the college term, 282-3; why extended to all, 284-5; description of, 285-6; and the sacred thread, 286. *Upanayana*, its antiquity, 270; meaning of, 268-9; when performed, 272; performed by married men, 268-9; a simple ritual, 270; when and why made compulsory 269; as the second birth, 49 m; why prescribed for the dumb and deaf, 269; why prescribed as a *Prāyaśchitta*, 269 of Asvattha tree, 270; critical survey of, 274-8; significance of; the presentation to deities in, 276, presentation to the teacher in, 277; teaching of the *Sāvitrī mantra* in, 278; significance of the whole ritual, 281-2; of Kshatriyas and Vaishyas, 43; of women, 206, 213; for Ayurveda students, 289; for Dhanurveda students, 291. Upanishad age, education in, 147-9, 236 8. *Utsarjana* ceremony, at the end of the session, 286-7.

c20.45

c20.46

Vacation, 85-6. Vaishyas, their Upanayana and Vedic studies, 43. Valabhi as a centre of education, 123-5. *Varāhamihira* on eclipses; 252-3: on Greeks' achievements in astronomy, 256. Vedic study, how far a mere cramming. 144-8; its nature in different periods, 144-147, 149; falling into background, 149; during 1-120 A. D. 149-50; and Kshatriyas, Vaishyas and Shudras, 43-44. Vernaculars, education in, 259-60; in Europe, 260, Veterinary science, 190. *Vidyās*, 14, App. IV. *Vidyārambha Samskāra*, 265-8. Vikramaśilā Monastic college, 125-9

c20.47

c20.48

Wastage in Education, 264. Women, status of, 212-14; *Upanayana* of, 206; 213; as teachers, 210; as poetesses 217-18; as Vedic seers, 205; as governors, 221; and medical studies, 219; scholars mentioned in *Brahmayajña*, 208; literacy among 212, 223-4; age at the marriage of, 215; and military training, 221, their economic position, 222. Work, in teachers' houses, 59-60.

c20.49

c20.50

*Yajñopavīta*, originally an upper garment of skin, then of cloth, 294-5; how supplanted by the thread, 296; could be removed, 298. Yuan Chwang, on Indian character 244-5.

c20.51

c20.52

Zemandars, and Sanskrit Pāṭhaśālās, 141.

c20.53

The first of these, the *Gospel of the Hebrews*, was used by the Jewish Christians of Palestine, and was probably a version of the Gospel of Matthew, though it contained some traditions not found in our canonical books. The *Gospel of the Egyptians* was used by the ascetic sects of Egypt, and was marked by a strong tendency towards mysticism and asceticism. The *Gospel of Peter* was used by the Docetists, and taught that Christ did not really suffer, but only appeared to do so.

c20.54

These gospels, and others like them, were not accepted by the Church as a whole, and were gradually lost or suppressed. The Church, however, felt the need for a standard collection of writings that would serve as a guide for faith and practice. This led to the formation of the New Testament canon, a process that took several centuries to complete.

c20.55

The first step in this process was the collection of the letters of Paul, which were widely circulated among the churches. Then came the four Gospels, which were accepted as the authoritative accounts of the life and teachings of Jesus. The Acts of the Apostles and the other epistles were gradually added, and finally the Book of Revelation.

c20.56

By the end of the second century, the core of the New Testament was generally accepted by the Church. The process of canonization was not a formal act of a council, but rather a gradual recognition by the churches of the writings that were most valuable for their life and worship. It was only in the fourth century that the canon was formally closed by the councils of the Church.

c20.57

The formation of the New Testament canon was a crucial event in the history of the Church. It provided a standard of faith and practice that helped to unify the Church and to protect it from the influence of heretical sects. It also ensured that the teachings of Jesus and the apostles would be preserved for future generations.