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Education in Ancient India c6.s1: Educational Finance

Education in Ancient India c6.s1

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Educational Finance

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Introduction: We have seen already that the item of students' fees was a minor one in the income of the private teacher and did not figure at all in the budgets of public colleges and universities. The question therefore naturally arises as to how education was being financed in ancient India. Society, which had frowned upon the practice of charging regular fees as a mercenary and unworthy procedure, used to succeed in getting ample support for the cause of education by appealing to the religious and charitable instincts of the public. Vidyādāna or a gift in the cause of education was pronounced to be the best of gifts, possessing a higher religious efficacy than even the gift of land (*bhūmidāna*).¹ Religion had a great hold over the public mind in ancient times and this spiritual exaltation of Vidyādāna secured so wide and ample a response to the cause of education, both from the public and the government, that it used to become possible to impart free education at least to all poor students, wishing to derive its benefits.

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¹ सहस्रसंमिता धेनुरनड्‌वान्दशधेनवः। दशानुदत्तसमं यानं दशयानसमं हयः॥ दशवाजिसमं कन्या भूमिदानं च तत्समम्। भूमिदानात्परं नास्ति विद्यादानं ततोऽधिकम्। Brihaspati quoted in SCS., p. 145.

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Help by Society; the Quota of Ordinary Men: There is ample evidence to show that society was always anxious to help the cause of education in a variety of ways. Even the poorest family was required to support the cause of education by giving a morsel of food to the poor and hungry student coming to beg food at the door at midday; to turn away such a student was pronounced to be the gravest of sins.¹ Men of ordinary means used to support the cause of education in a variety of ways. They used to offer presents only to learned Brahmanas on the occasion of Śrāddha; these presents were fairly numerous and frequent for the Śrāddha was performed in ancient times once in a month and not once in a year, as is the case now. On the occasion of religious feasts as large a number of students and teachers as possible was invited: the citizens of Taxila, for instance, were particular to follow this practice (Jātaka No. 498). On auspicious occasions like Upanayana and marriage, families used to give donations in cash or kind to teachers and educational institutions.²

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¹ स्त्रीणां प्रत्याचक्षाणां समाहितो ब्रह्मचारी इष्टं दत्तं हुतं प्रजां पशून्ब्रह्मवर्चस-मन्नाद्यं वृंक्ते । Ap. Dh. S., I. 1, 2, 24-25 G. Br., 2. 5-7 has a similar warning.

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² The citizens of Salotgi, for instance, used to follow this practice; see E. I., IV, p. 60.

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The Quota of Richer Citizens: Rich persons used to help the cause of education in more substantial ways. They would often engage the services of a teacher for their children and permit the villagers also to send their wards to study under him. Sometimes they used to take the lion's share in meeting the expenses of the local school. They used to offer substantial help to graduates collecting subscription for paying honorarium to their teachers. Very often they used to defray the expenses of copying books with a view to present them to scholars or schools. In an age in which there existed neither press nor paper, gifts of books were very badly needed.¹ Very rich persons sometimes used to found free feeding houses for the poor in general and the students in particular;² sometimes they would construct college buildings either as a matter of charity³ or in commemoration of some departed relation.⁴ Others would often endow chairs⁵ or make grants of land to meet some recurring expenses. This was a combination of Vidyādāna and Bhumidāna, and was very popular.¹ Those who were extremely rich would often found and endow schools and colleges.² Sometimes village communities³ and trade guilds⁴ also would organise and finance educational institutions from their own resources.

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¹ These have been recommended by Purāṇas ; cf. शास्त्रे यस्माज्जगतसर्वं संश्रितं च शुभाशुभम् । तस्माच्छास्त्रं प्रयत्नेन दातव्यं शुभकर्मणा ।। Quoted by Aparārka on Yāj I. 212. Both Nālandā and Valabhi used to get grants for books ; see Chap. VI.

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² These, for instance, existed at Kolagalli, Managoli, Nilgund, Nesrage, Bagewadi, Belgamve, Dambal, Gadag and Behati in Karnatak and at Kharepatan in Konkan during 1000-1400 A. D. See, I. M. P., Bellary No. 82; E. I., V. p. 22; Ibid, III, p. 208; J. B. B. R. A, S., X, p. 256; I. A, VII, p. 307; Ibid, V, p. 49; Ibid, X, p. 188; Ibid, I, p. 30; Ibid, IV, p. 274; E. I, IV, p. 355 respectively.

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³ Nārāyaṇa, a Rāṣṭrakūṭa minister, had done this in 945 A. D for the college at Salotgi; E. I. IV. p. 180.

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⁴ For instance a Brahmana landlord at Kudarkot had erected a building for a Vedic school in memory of his son killed in war; E I., 1. p. 180.

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⁵ These were known as Adhyayanavrittis and Vedavrittis and their holders were also required to recite and expound Vedas and Purāṇas for the benefit of the public. At a single village named Kuttalam in Trichinopoly district sixteen endowments were made for this purpose within the short interval of 150 years during the Vijayanagara rule; see S. I. E. R., for 1917, nos. 481 and 487 of 1917.

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¹ A local magnate had given a gift of 200 nivartanas of land to the college at Salotgi; *E. I.* IV, p. 60. See also *I. A.*, XII, p. 258 and XIII, p. 94 for similar gifts given at Soratur and Dharwar.

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² Chāngadeva, for instance, a grandson of Bhāskarāchārya, the famous astronomer, had founded a college at Pātan; see *E. I.*, I. p. 30; Perumal, a Hoysal minister, had founded a college at Metugi in Karnatak in 1290 A. D. where Vedas, Śāstras, Canarese and Marathi were taught; see *E. C* III, Tiru-Narspur, No. 27

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³ The Sanskrit college at Ennayiram was endowed by the local village community; *S. I. E. R.*, 1918, p. 145; the village community at Belur had made a grant of land for meeting part of the expenses of a local institution; see *I. A.*, XVIII, p. 273.

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⁴ A guild at Dambal in Dharwar district was maintaining a Sanskrit college in the 12th century; *I. A.*, VIII, p. 185.

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⁵ *A History of Indigenous Education in the Punjab*, p. 1; Indian Education Commission, 1882.

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The Example of the Punjab: That the tradition to help the cause of education was deep-rooted in society would become quite clear from what we know about the state of the Punjab on the eve of the British conquest. Dr. Leitner, its first Educational Commissioner, observes. "Respect for learning has always been the redeeming feature of the East. To this the Punjab formed no exception. Torn by invasions and civil war, it ever preserved and added to educational institutions. The most unscrupulous chief, the avaricious money-lender and even the free-booter vied with the small money-lender in making peace with his conscience by founding schools and rewarding the learned. There was not a mosque, a temple or a Dharmashālā that had not a school attached to it, to which the youths flocked chiefly for religious education. There were few wealthy men who did not entertain a Maulavi, a Pandit or a Guru to teach their sons, and along with them, the sons of their friends and dependents. There were hundreds of religious men who gratuitously taught their coreligionists, and sometimes all comers, for the sake of God. There was not a single villager who did not take pride in devoting a portion of his produce to a respected teacher.” For obvious reasons the reverence for education in other parts of India in the ancient period could not have been less sincere and deep than it was in the Punjab at the advent of the British rule.

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Government’s Contribution, Direct Form

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¹ See *Manu*, VII, 82; *Yāj.* I, 130; *Sukra*, I, 369; *Arathasāstra*, II, 1 and 20. Bhīshma pointedly draws the attention of Dharma to this duty; see *Mbh.* XIII, chaps. 59 and 60. Though extending patronage, kings were not to assume a patronising attitude to learned men. King Raghu treats Kautsa very courteously; Dushyanta leaves behind his army when approaching the hermitage of Kaṇva.

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Brahmanas and found a colony of theirs, endowing villages to meet the expenses of the new settlers. This was tantamount to founding a new college, for these Brahmana colonies used to develop into famous centres of education. Governments used also to grant lands or pensions to most of the learned Brahmanas that used to come to their courts. Liberality of kings like Kanishka, Chandragupta II, Harsha and Bhoja is well known to history and tradition¹. Scores of copper-plate grants published so far show that kings were generally in the habit of giving land grants to learned and pious Brahmanas. These latter in their turn used to offer free tuition and thus help the cause of education. But for royal patronage poets and authors like Kālidāsa, Bāṇa Bhavabhūti, Vākpati, Rājaśekhara and Śrīharsha could not have done as much literary work as they did. The tradition of giving direct monetary help to learned Brahmanas promoting the cause of education continued down to

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Some of the kings, who had extended patronage to famous scholars, may be mentioned here:—

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1. Aśvaghosha and Charaka were the proteges of Kanishka. The Sātavāhanas of the Deccan were famous for their patronage of scholarship. Numerous are the stories still current of the liberality of Chandragupta Vikramāditya to men of letters. His successors Kumāragupta, Tathāgatagupta, Narasimhagupta and Budhagupta endowed a number of villages to Nālandā University. Emperor Harsha was not only a patron of letters, but himself a good poet and dramatist. Bhavabhūti and Vākpati belonged to the entourage of king Yaśovarman of Kanauj. King Mahendrapāla and Mahīpāla of the same city were the patrons of the famous dramatist Rājaśekhara. Kings Muñja, Sindhurāja and Bhoja of the Paramāra dynasty are subjects of numerous anecdotes illustrative of their love of learning. The last mentioned one was himself a great author. Vikramāditya VI of the Chālukya dynasty invited poet Bilhaṇa to his court from Kashmir and extended his patronage to Vijñāneśvara, whose Mitāksharā is still regarded as authoritative in law courts. Umāpatideva, Dhoi, Govardhana and Jayadeva were living at the court of king Lakshmaṇasena of Bengal, Hemachandra at the court of king Kumārapāla of Gujarat and Śrīharsha, the author of Naishadhacharit, at the court of kings Vijayachandra and Jayachandra of Kanauj.

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the times of the Peshwas in the 19th century. Bajirao II, the last of the Peshwas, was to spend 5,00,000 of rupees in giving charity to learned Brahmanas. ‘But’ says Elphinstone, ‘the Dakshiṇā formed only a small portion of his largesses to Brahmanas and the number of persons devoted to Hindu learning and religion who were supported by him exceeded what would be readily supposed’.¹

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¹ Elphinstone's minute quoted at p. 5 of the Report of the Bombay Provincial Committee, Education Commission, 1882.

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Government help in indirect Forms : Governments used to help the cause of education in many indirect ways also. They used to offer scholarships to students to enable them to complete their education.² Often they used to hold literary tournaments and offer rich rewards to successful scholars.³ In making appointments they used to show preference to men of learning; it is well known that many of the officers of the Guptas were good poets or students of politics.⁴ Of course it was not possible for governments to absorb all graduates in their service; those who could not be employed in administrative posts used to get some monetary help to enable them to start their lives.⁵

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² सर्वविद्याकलाभ्यासे शिक्षयेद्वतिपोषितान् । समाप्तविद्यं तं दृष्ट्वा तत्कार्यं तं नियोजयेत् ॥ Śukra, I. 368 Some of the Taxila students were state scholars; J. No, 522

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³ Kings Janaka of Mithilā and Ajātaśatru of Benares are, for instance, known to have done this; Br. Up. II. 1. 1 Vikramāditya and Harsha are also famous for inviting learned men for literary affrays.

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⁴ Harisheṇa, the author of the Allahabad praśasti was holding the post of a judge; Śaba, a minister of Chandragupta, II, was a poet and an expert in Nītiśāstra. See Gupta Inscriptions, Nos. 1 and 5.

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⁵ This practice, for instance, prevailed at the court of Valabhi in the 7th century A. D.; see I-tsing, p. 177-8

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Failure to help liberally a student, collecting money to pay his teacher's honorarium was regarded as the greatest slur on a king's reputation.¹ Further indirect help to the cause of education was given by the state by exempting students and learned but poor Brahmanas from taxation.² The treasure trove laws were so framed as to help the cause of learning.³ The law of limitation was relaxed in favour of the student engaged in prosecuting studies at a college (Gurukula).⁴

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¹ Cf. Raghu's remark to Kautsa when he wanted to go away, unsuccessful in his mission to get Gurudakṣiṇā :-

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² Cf. अकरः श्रोत्रियः ।........ये च विद्यार्थिनः सन्ति । Ā. D. S. II. 10. 26. 14-17 ; see also V. Dh. S., XIX. 15

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³ If a king found a treasure trove, he was required to give half of it to learned Brahmanas; if the latter found it, they could retain the whole. Others had to refund 16 per cent to the state. Manu, VIII. 35-9; Yāj. II. 34-5

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⁴ Cf :- ब्रह्मचारी चरेत्कश्चिद्व्रतं षट्त्रिंशदाब्दिकम् ।

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Government Help without Government Control : A recent Soviet writer on education has averred that schools and colleges can never be free from political control as long as the state exists. His statement appears to be perfectly true when we cast a glance at the educational organisations in modern times; for all states are at present very anxious to control educational institutions and curricula as soon as they proceed to give government grants. In totalitarian states, education has become a means of propaganda

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गुर्वर्थमर्थी श्रुतपारदृश्वा रघोः सकाशादनवाप्य कामम् ।
गतो वदान्यान्तरमित्ययं मे मा भूत्परीवादनवावतारः ॥ V. 24

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समावृत्तो व्रती कुर्याद्ब्रह्मचर्यान्वेषणं ततः ।
पञ्चाशदाब्दिकं भोगस्तद्धनस्यापहारकः ॥
Nārada in SCS, quoted at S. B. E., 38, pp. 248-4.

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for government views and policies. The state in ancient India, however, did not attempt to control education, because it was liberally subsidising it. There were no Directors of Public Instruction and Inspectors and Deputy Inspectors of Schools to dictate and control educational policy. Even when grants were given to learned Brahmanas, there was no stipulation that they would be withdrawn if free education was not given by the donees. It was the king's duty to make such grants. It was the Brahmana's duty to teach, even when there were no grants. Each side was to perform its duty though there were no specific stipulations. Even when hundreds of villages were given to the Nālandā University by Hindu Gupta emperors, they did not stipulate that Buddhism should adopt a particular policy towards the religion of the donors. Monks at Nālandā declined to revise the traditional rules of seniority in order to show some courtesy concession to a royal donor, who desired to be regarded as the seniormost monk, when he had joined the church as a layman.² There was as perfect a toleration in education as there was in religion. Kings were giving grants to all institutions, without caring to control their policy or curricula. Of course this was not an unmixed blessing, as will be shown in the last chapter; but it cannot be denied that it helped the cause of free educational development.

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² Narasimhagupta Bālāditya wanted this concession, but it was refused. He was regarded as the seniormost only among lay followers. Waters, II, pp. 164-5.

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Government Help elsewhere: The failure to organise an educational department might appear to the modern reader as a blemish in the ancient Indian state organisation. A glance at the contemporary history shows, however, that the states in the West also had not only no State Education Departments, but were not accustomed to give any substantial grants to educational institutions started by private individuals. Schools in the Middle Ages in Europe were dependent not on the State but on the Church; it was the latter which provided for the expenses, supplied teachers and moulded aims and ideals.¹ Famous English Universities like Oxford and Cambridge grew out of no Order of Government or Resolution of Parliament: they were originally centres of scholars united by their zeal and aptitude for learning, and anxious to hand down the torch of learning to the next generation. Their sincerity and scholarship attracted donors like Walter de Merton and Wykenham, who came forward to provide hostels and colleges for residence and study.² Down to the 19th century, education was financially dependent on the Church, private benefactors and corporations. In England, the state gave its first grant for primary education as late as 1832, and that was of £2000 only. In France the state took up the cause of education only after the great Revolution of 1788. It was in Germany that the state first began to zealously champion the cause of education; Martin Luther maintained that education ought to be supported by state and his advocacy proved effective. In India, however, the state recognised its responsibility to the cause of education since earliest times, as we have shown already. It believed in the spontaneous growth of education and so did not organise its own educational department.

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¹ Pinkewitch, *New Education in Soviet Russia*.

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¹ Raymont, Principles o Education, p. 18.

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² Mayhew, p. 77.

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A Resume: By making Upanayana obligatory and professions hereditary, by showing encouragement to learning in a variety of ways, by securing ample patronage from rulers and landlords, by penalising any stipulation for fees and by laying down a very high code of conduct for the teaching profession, Hindu society tried to make fairly efficient arrangement and provision for the education of the rising generation. The results show that before the decay set in, these measures for the spread of education proved to be fairly successful. As will be shown in the Chapter VII, literacy was spread fairly widely among the higher classes; its percentage among them was probably as high as 75% at the beginning of the Christian era. In contemporary times in no other country in the world was there so wide a spread of literacy. Hindu achievements in the realm of medicine, metallurgy, astronomy, chemistry, and spinning and weaving were also of a high order, if judged by contemporary standards. There was, undoubtedly a set back after about 800 A.D.; its causes will be discussed in the course of the concluding chapter.

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