History of Technology in India, Vol. I: From Antiquity to c. 1200 A.D. v1.c10.s3: III. Techniques of the Neolithic Period
History of Technology in India, Vol. I: From Antiquity to c. 1200 A.D. v1.c10.s3
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III. Techniques of the Neolithic Period
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The lithic technologies of the Palaeolithic and Mesolithic times are marked by a process of development in which two tendencies were pronounced. One, the economy of labour and raw material, which can be seen in terms of the Levallois technique to the blade detaching technique. In case of the latter, expenditure of very limited time and wastage of stone was able to produce much larger and sharper working edges, than was acquired by the flakes obtained by Levallois techniques. Second, during the course of this development the size of implements was gradually decreasing, the culmination of which can be seen in the case of the microliths. Contrary to this the lithic technological attainment appears to reverse back to the earlier technological stage during the Neolithic period. For instance, not only large to very large size tool making was initiated, which compares well with Acheulian tools of the Lower Palaeolithic times, but also input of laborious processes were being involved. The Neolithic technological innovation is marked by the Ground stone tools or axes. Many forms of axes, chisels, picks, hoes, were made which together form tool-kit of a carpenter. Making of a typical Neolithic axe involves three stages of working (Sankalia 1964, pp. 79-82).
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In the first stage the basic form of the implement is chipped by direct percussion method and using stone hammer. In the second stage, the prominent ridges appearing from the earlier flaking are removed by pecking method. In pecking method very small flakes are carefully detached so as to bring down the raised surfaces of the tool. The third process is very lengthy and tedious, in which the surface of the tool is ground. Grinding process was performed on a stone anvil by sprinkling sand and water and rubbing parts of the implement one by one (Fig. 13). This technique is so characteristic of Neolithic period that the tools are referred to as ‘ground stone tools’. The aim to perform this process was to provide toughness to the implements (Jayaswal, 1992). Neolithic implements have been obtained from various parts of the Indian sub-continent. In the north, Kashmir valley has Burzoham group of sites, where along with the axes, chisel, pick and hoe are common types.
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Fig. 13. Method of Grinding Stone Implements
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In Uttar Pradesh and Bihar, the Neolithic tool-kit comprises small triangular axes as the major type, along with a considerable proportion of quaerns and mullers and microliths. The east Indian Neolithic complex is characterized by shouldered axes. While the south Indian sites which have concentration in Karnataka, Andhra and Tamilnadu, have axes similar to the Uttar Pradesh and Bihar region. Though techno-typological features of the Neolithic tool-kit of India compares well, in general term with other parts of the world, particularly West Asia, the cultural debris of this region is of later date.
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Except for a couple of dates from Koldihwa (Sharma et al. 1980, pp. 198-199), which are early, but debatable, all the other dates of the Indian Neolithic horizons belong to the bracket of fourth to second millennium B.C. (Jayaswal, 1992).
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Bone and antlers were used as another preferred medium for implements during the Neolithic period in India. Various types of pointed tools were made (Thapar, 1985, p.30). While examining the osteological remains from one of the Neolithic-Chalcolithic sites excavated by our department it was possible to make some observations on the bone utilization tendencies and making processes by us (Thakur & Jayaswal, 1991). The Senuwar collection of bones showed that the suitable broken bones which had originally formed part of food refuge, were utilized as tools, with little or without any alteration. Two types of natural morphology were exhaustely exploited by Senuwarians of the Neolithic times. Firstly, the original bone forms in the shape of chisel-like edge and thick and broad tubular faceted parts as butt, were found suitable for use.
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Secondly, natural breakage pattern of bone, in pointed form was also picked up for use. These conclusions were derived at by conducting micro-wear studies on specimens. It was also found that the number of finished tools was very limited in the Neolithic phase (Fig. 14). The tools were made out of the long limb bones of animals. The cortexed part or the outer part of the bones was suitable for making points and needles etc. The cancellous portion which is placed in the middle part of the bones needs to be avoided with a view to retaining toughness.
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Fig.14. Adze, Mace-head & Axe of the Neolithic Period
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This part was only usable for the socketed tools. The chiselling and grinding were the processes through which a typical bone implement was made.
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The above description of the Stone Age technologies in India suggests that though the evidence which has been accumulated so far suggests that the occurrences and practices of various techniques in this region also follow the general trend of technological attainments, yet many of the techniques are less prevalent or not well mastered. Also the date for the origin and spread of some of the lithic technological trends are comparatively later than some other regions of the world.