History of Technology in India, Vol. I: From Antiquity to c. 1200 A.D. v1.c11.s3.t1: Copper Hoards Metal Technology
History of Technology in India, Vol. I: From Antiquity to c. 1200 A.D. v1.c11.s3.t1
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Copper Hoards Metal Technology
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Because most of the Copper Hoards have been found in caches, they give an impression of abundance of metal. For example, at Gungeria, 424 artifacts with a total weight of more than 400 kg were discovered. Until we find these implements in regular excavations or habitation sites, however, it will be difficult to infer the real abundance of metal in an archaeological context.
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An examination of the Copper Hoards artifacts shows that they were made both by hammering and cutting metal sheets, as well as by closed casting. A small percentage of the artifacts (Fig. 5) show lead alloying, probably for better fusibility. Metallographic examination of the artifacts indicates slow cooling, cold work, and annealing.
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We have few data on the trace impurity pattern of the Copper Hoards, but circumstantial evidence points to the use of Bihar mines. The exclusive occurrence of barcelts in the eastern region may also indicate their use for crowbar-like operations in mining.
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More interesting is the evidence of arsenic alloying. Out of the 46 artifacts analyzed by us, 50% show more than 1% arsenic. None of the artifacts, however, has any tin (Fig. 5). It is thus obvious that the Copper Hoards technological tradition is different from that of the other cultures. We may recall here that in the earliest phases, both in the Near and Middle East, only arsenic alloying was used (Eaton and Mckerell 1976); tin replaces arsenic only in the third millennium B.C. in Western Asia. At Tepe Yahya, they used arsenic copper ores, which made arsenic alloying easier for them, but there are no significant sources of arsenic in India, although small out-crops are known from Rajasthan, Kashmir, and Bihar. Nal in Pakistan, yielded lollingite (FeAs2). Both of these features, exclusive arsenic alloying and characteristic tool-types, indicate the possibility of the Copper Hoards being an autochthonous, and perhaps the oldest, metallurgical tradition in India.
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Before we conclude the discussion on the Copper Hoards, we should take note of some remarkable discoveries made recently in Rajasthan (Agrawala 1979:159-160; Agrawala 1980:89-92). Sixty copper flat celts and some arrowheads were discovered from Ganeshwar in Sikar District of Rajasthan.
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Two points deserve notice: first, the arrowheads are of Harappan type; second, the site is only 80km from the rich Khetri mines. Although we cannot technically include them with the Copper Hoards, they do indicate a factory site.
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The Khurdi Hoard was reported earlier by Sankalia, but Agrawala (1980:89) reports that the site is actually Kurada, in Nagaur District of Rajasthan. The original hoard consisted of 103 artifacts, but only 10 now remain in the Jodhpur museum. None of the types is typical of the Copper Hoards artifacts; in fact, the channel-spouted bowl has affinities with the Malwa channel-spout and the hatchets with those found at Kalibangan.
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Although there is a distinct possibility that some of these sites served as factory centers for the Harappan and Pre-Harappan towns, contacts with the Copper Hoards do not appear likely.
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Agrawal, D.P. : 1969, “The Copper Hoards problem: a technological angle”. *ASP*, **12**, 113-119.
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Agrawal, D.P. : 1971, *The Copper Bronze Age in India*, Munshiram Manoharlal, Delhi.
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Agrawal, D.P. : 1982, *The Archaeology of India*, Curzon Press, London.
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Agrawal, D.P. : 1982a, “The Indian Bronze Age Cultures and their Metal Technology”, in *Advances in World Archaeology*, 1, pp. 231-264, (Edited by) F. Wendorf and A.E. Close, Academic Press, New York.
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Agrawal, D.P.: 1992, *Man and Environment in India through Ages*, Books & Books, Delhi.
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Agrawal, D.P. and Kusumgar, S. : 1974, *Prehistoric Chronology and Radiocarbon Dating in India*, Munshiram Manoharlal, Delhi.
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Agrawal, D.P.: 1976, “Ancient copper workings: some new ¹⁴C dates”, in Margabandhi, C. and Sekar, N.C., *IJHS* **11(2)**, 133-136.
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Agrawala, R.C. : 1979, “Three copper objects from Ganeshwar, Rajasthan”, *JOI*, **28(3-4)**, 159-160.
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Agrawala, R.C. : 1980, “Khurdi Copper Hoard from Rajasthan”, in *MAE*, **4**, 89-92.
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Dhavalikar, M.K. : 1979, “Early farming cultures of Deccan”, in *Essays in Indian Protohistory*, (edited by) D.P. Agrawal and D.K. Chakrabarti, B.R. Publishers, Delhi. pp. 247- 265.
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Gupta, S.P. : 1963. “Indian Copper Hoards : the problems of homogeneity, development, origin, authorship and dating”, *JBIOR*, **49**, 147-166.
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Lal, B.B. : 1951, “Further Copper Hoards from the Gangetic basin and a review of the problem”, *ANI*, **7**, 20-39.
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Lal, B.B. : 1972, “The Copper Hoard Culture of the Ganga Valley”, *ANTI*, **56**: 282-297.
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Mackay, E.J.H. : 1943, *Chanhudaro Excavations*, 1935-36, American Oriental Society, Boston.
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Pathak, B.R. and Mehekar, M.K. : 1955, “Report on copper celt and bangle”, in *Report on the Excavations at Nasik and Jorwe*: 1950-51, S.B. Deo and H.D. Sankalia, Deccan College, Poona, p.159-160.
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Possehl, G.L. (ed): 1978, *Ancient cities of the Indus*, Vikas Publications, New Delhi.
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Rajam, Sheshadri : 1992, “The composition and smithery techniques of copper artifacts from Nagwada”, *MAE*, **17(1)**, 7-12.
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Rao, S.R. : 1973, *Lothal and Indus Civilization*, Asia, Bombay.
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Sana Ullah, M. : 1931, “Copper and bronze utensils and other objects”, in *Mohenjo-Daro and the Indus Civilization*, (Edited by) J.Marshall, A.Prosthin, London, pp.481-488.
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Sankalia, H.D. : 1974, *Prehistory and Protohistory of India and Pakistan*, Deccan College, Poona.
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Wheeler, R.E.M. : 1968, *The Indus Civilization* (3rd edition), Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.