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History of Technology in India, Vol. I: From Antiquity to c. 1200 A.D. v1.c12.s2: Concluding Remarks

History of Technology in India, Vol. I: From Antiquity to c. 1200 A.D. v1.c12.s2

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English

Concluding Remarks

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Use of minerals by man dates back to Pleistocene period. In India, in the pre-vedic period mining and use of metals specially gold, silver, copper and gemstones have been mentioned extensively. The vedic period (Circa 1500 B.C.) saw considerable growth of mining and mineral industry. The Rgveda, the oldest composition of Aryans mentions the use of copper, bronze, gold and silver and Yajurveda mentions the use of gold, silver, copper, lead, tin and iron. But the earliest and most authentic record of information relating to mining and minerals is found in *Arthaśāstra*, composed by Kauṭilya. Metallurgy of copper and its alloys (brass and bronze) was highly developed during this period. By then mining of gold, copper, lead-zinc and silver had fully developed in different parts of the country.

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Fig.13. Clay retorts

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Recent explorations and studies have shown that mining of gold in South India, lead-zinc-silver mining in Rajasthan and copper mining in Bihar and Rajasthan was firmly established as a prosperous industry in ancient India and the mining standards, judged by the standards then prevailing, were quite high.

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Invariably for all hard rock mining fire-setting followed by quenching the fire with water was the main general method for creating a system of cracks in the rock mass/orebody which were subsequently exploited for extracting the ore by ‘gad’ or chisels. Iron for extraction tools came in use long time (some 2900 years) ago.

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Pillars were left to support the stopes and weak backs were supported by timber. Evidences of extraction of pillars and planned retreat mining are also available, for example, at Zawar.

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The ore was transported out of the mine in baskets by human labour. In some mines a chain of men worked to transport the ore from one man to the other. The working faces were illuminated by bamboo chips and later use of earthen oil lamps is indicated.

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Although the ancients had learnt how to deal with water, it was the main inhibitor which limited the depth to which mining could be carried on. All the same, some mines in India descended to great depths. For example, Hutti gold mine reached a depth of 640 ft (195.07 m), a depth not reached by any other mine in the world in those days.

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Ventilation of the working places was solely dependent on natural processes. The ancients however, appreciated the advantages of separating intakes and returns and at some mines shafts were sunk at close intervals which were interconnected underground to establish ventilation.

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The working conditions were by and large very arduous and risky and took heavy toil of human life as at Khetri.

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As said earlier mining of gold, copper, lead-zinc-silver and diamond was highly developed and Indian metals and gems were widely traded and exported abroad.

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